Design Life-Cycle

 Mateenah Muhammad

Professor Christina

Cogdell DES 40A
June 5 2024

Life Cycle of a Film Roll: Raw Materials

Film photography has been a part of society since its debut in 1888 by George Eastman. It has created a community that has connected people to share their love of film and all of its unique qualities. It was picked up by Kodak, during that summer, and this became the world’s first introduction of film. Overtime, Kodak has perfected and created a fully functioning and less hazardous product, but it still has its pros and cons. The popularity of film photography has declined as society has evolved with other forms of technology to capture digital media, but nonetheless is one of its kind in being able to produce images that capture the essence, emotions, and personality of its subject. There’s nothing that can quite recreate the “magic” of film roll, but it does come at a cost. The production of film roll is quite literally a science involving light and chemistry.There is a particular process that has to happen in order for the image to be developed properly, edited, and ready for viewing. Overall, there are few materials required to create a film roll, although there is a mandatory and highly specific needed along with proper handling to allow for the film roll to be properly produced. I plan to discuss the raw materials required to create a Kodak film roll and the derivation of these items.

Raw Materials Acquisition

Film roll requires few primary materials that go into the formation of the product. Although with these raw materials, they are used in multiple areas to create a fully functioning product that is able to produce beautiful images. The three materials used are plastic, gelatin, and silver halide crystals. The combination of these allow for the film to have layers that serve their own purpose to formulate and protect the image. The plastic that is used in the roll is formed into thin plastic sheets that are only 0.025 mm thick, hence its slim appearance and stature. It is what makes up the parts of the film roll that are feasible and that we’re able to touch. Plastic is made from cellulose, salt, crude oil, and sometimes other natural gasses. Cellulose is a carbohydrate that comes from the cell walls of different species, including bacteria, algae, plants, and wood. Salt is a naturally occurring element that is obtained through mining. The last element of plastic is crude oil comes from the petroleum fossil fuels that are extracted from the earth and refined. Fossil fuels are objects that are buried deep underground and are mined in various ways, such as vertical drilling, hydraulic fracturing, etc. Gelatin is the second element that aids in binding the roll together and what creates up most of the thickness itself, since there are multiple layers with various states of it. Gelatin is made from collagen, a fibrous protein that connects muscles, bones, and the skin of animals. The bones of decaying or dead animals are sought out, typically from slaughter houses, to obtain this collagen. Lastly, there are silver-halide crystals, which are the main reason why there is even an image to see. Halide crystals are a combination of silver nitrate and halide salts. The halide salts are a chemical combination that is made from chloride, bromide, and iodide.

Manufacturing

There are four major areas concerning the areas of manufacturing of the Kodak film roll. These areas included are the base, the emulsion layer, the annihilation backing layer, and the protective coating layer. First to be made is the base layer, which is a transparent material plastic, that is made of cellulose acetate (wood pulp or cotton fibers) plus acetate. The base is there to lay the foundation for the remaining required layers and support where the image will be produced in the film. The second layer is the emulsion layer that consists of silver-halide crystals. This layer is where the actual image is being formed once light is captured in the film roll. The silver halide crystals are what allows the latent, or undeveloped image to be formed. The emulsion layer absorbs all of the light captured within the photo. Moreover, the crystals in this layer are exposed to light, after the sutter is clicked and latent images are formed. A latent image is a semi-permanent element that acts as a placeholder for its future development. Then there’s the protective layer, which is the top layer and is made from hardened gelation that protects the emulsion layer from damage. The last layer behind the emulsion layer is the annihilation layer. This layer is composed of a dyed gelation undercoat. It absorbs the light that is captured once the shutter is pressed, so that the light is absorbed in the layer and doesn’t bounce back up through the emulsion. Otherwise, it would scatter the light and reduce the sharpness. As discussed, the elements inside of the film roll are fairly simple. The process of forming this product is a bit more complicated and requires precise measurements from machines and manufacturing.

Reuse and Maintenance

Film roll is a delicacy when it comes time to process the images and bring it to life. During this very calculated process, there are secondary toxic materials that are used to produce the image from the film. In this process, there are agents used to aid in formulating the image. The main ones include developer, bleach, fixer, and color fixer, which are all applied to the film. After taking the photo on the camera, there is a latent image formed on the silver halide crystals and these materials are used to produce the permanent image. Developer is pretty much what makes these halide crystals visible to the naked eye. During this process, the chemicals in the developer turn the crystals into silver metal that’s opaque. From this, the image is considered a negative, where the highlights and shadows are inverted. This is where the next phase of the maintenance happens is with bleach. Bleach is made from multiple combinations of sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate,and more. Its purpose is to get rid of this new found negative image. Fixer is typically a thiosulfate solution (sodium thiosulfate/ammonium thiosulfate) that washes away the last remaining silver halide crystals. It is essentially the chemical that does the final touch-ups. This is to assure that only the silver metal that is now formed on the roll are only present. The last main secondary material is color developer. If the photo is being produced with color, then the film will come into contact with this chemical as well. This is a highly toxic chemical by skin absorption that contains paraphenylene diamine with dimethyl derivatives. It does what it seems, which is to help develop the photos in its final development stages.
All of the chemicals used are necessary for the proper development of the film. Although, they do have many toxic chemicals that aren’t very sustainable, but are necessary. Due to its unique formation, it requires specific materials and chemicals to produce a photo. From what I’ve

researched there doesn't seem to be a better alternative currently to help reduce the amount of toxic gasses and chemicals that go into the maintenance of the images.

Packaging

Kodak uses plastic canisters to ship their rolls and along with the help of delivery services. I can’t find specifics on what their rolls are packaged and shipped in.

Waste & Recycling

When it comes to waste and recycling, there are no harmful effects when it comes to the actual acquisition of the primary raw materials. On the other hand, these are harmful toxic gasses produced from the usage of secondary materials to develop the film, such as the developer, fixer, and bleaching agents. Specifically in the developer, the oehnidone, dimezone, and hydroquinone

chemicals are toxic for human contact. Additionally, the release of sodium bisulte from the xer is also harmful to humans. In the manufacturing facilities, there are large amounts of water used to create the layers as well. The production of lm roll is not the most sustainable, but until better methods are found outside of the harmful chemicals, then there’s no guarantee that a better solution will be found.

Film roll has such a unique process, despite it requiring a minimal amount of supplies and raw materials. Fossil fuels and digging in the underground along with the gelatin being an animal by-product aren’t the best options available, especially today with a wide variety of options. We have advanced in our abilities to replace elements with more sustainable options. On a much grander scale, there are many negative eects that go into the larger production of lm roll. There are also negative

eects happening when it comes to the development of the lm.. With those secondary materials, comes a release of highly toxic fumes and gas. There has been a fairly uniform way of processing lm, since it became a huge business. It’s not good to always rely on outdated techniques and strategies, so Kodak has to think about how to better improve their safety and think about the safety of people everyday. It would benet if Kodak researched more updated and sustainable techniques to upkeep their long-lived production company and reduce waste. .

Works Cited

“Acetate Film: NFSA.” National Film and Sound Archive of Australia, www.nfsa.gov.au/preservation/preservation-glossary/acetate-film#:~:text=Cellulose%20acetate %20is%20manufactured%20by,for%20overlay%20cells%20in%20animation. Accessed 30 Apr. 2024. ‘

Chieng, Raymond. “X-Ray Film: Radiology Reference Article.” Radiopaedia, Radiopaedia.Org, 12 Aug. 2023, radiopaedia.org/articles/x-ray-film?lang=us#:~:text=The%20emulsion%20layer%20consists%20 of,does%20not%20have%20photographic%20sensitivity. Accessed 02 June 2024.

Cindradewi, Azelia Wulan, et al. “Preparation and Characterization of Cellulose Acetate Film Reinforced with Cellulose Nanofibril.” Polymers, U.S. National Library of Medicine, 3 Sept. 2021, www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8434040/. Accessed 30 Apr. 2024.

Diprose, Leigh. “A Behind-the-Scenes Look at How 35mm Film Is Developed and Printed at a Lab.” PetaPixel, 5 Dec. 2022, petapixel.com/2013/01/07/a-behind-the-scenes-look-at-how-35mm-film-is-developed-and-printe d-at-a-lab/. Accessed 22 May 2024.

“How Does Film Actually Work? (It’s Magic) [Photos and Development] - Smarter Every Day 258.” YouTube, 13 June 2021, www.youtube.com/watch?v=TCxoZlFqzwA&t=1468s. Accessed 15 May 2024.

“How Does Kodak Make Film? (Kodak Factory Tour Part 1 of 3) - Smarter Every Day 271.” YouTube, 19 Mar. 2022, www.youtube.com/watch?v=HQKy1KJpSVc&t=2752s. Accessed 14 May 2024.

Katz, Jordan. “Acetate Film, Acetate Sheet.” Grafix Plastics, www.grafixplastics.com/grafix-plastics/plastic-film-plastic-sheet-faq/acetate_what/#:~:text=Aceta te%20film%20is%20produced%20by,superior%20clarity%20and%20surface%20quality. Accessed 01 May 2024.

“Photographic Processing.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 18 Feb. 2024, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_processing#:~:text=Following%20the%20first%20developer %20and,in%20the%20first%20developer%20step. Accessed 20 May 2024.

“Photography Safety.” Photography Safety | Environmental Health & Safety | UMass Amherst,

ehs.umass.edu/photography-safety#:~:text=amines%2C%20and%20others.-,Hazards,irritation %2C%20allergies%2C%20and%20poisoning. Accessed 28 May 2024.

“Sodium Bisulfate Poisoning.” Mount Sinai Health System, www.mountsinai.org/health-library/poison/sodium-bisulfate-poisoning#:~:text=Without%20promp t%20treatment%2C%20extensive%20damage,which%20may%20result%20in%20death. Accessed 01 June 2024.

“This Thing Is Crazy Fast - Kodak Part 3- Smarter Every Day 286.” YouTube, 14 May 2023, www.youtube.com/watch?v=mrJP82ZZiag&t=1s. Accessed 14 May 2024.

“Transporting & Storing Film.” Kodak, 15 June 2023, www.kodak.com/en/motion/page/transporting-storing-film/. Accessed 23 May 2024.

Henry Xu

Professor Christina Cogdell

DES 40A

5 June 2024

Life Cycle of a Roll of Film: The Embodied Energy

In the age of digital technology, traditional film photography is seen by some as a relic of the past. However, some photographers seek to preserve and continue this practice, and in turn companies will continue to produce (Magaudda). Kodak Eastman Company was a pioneer in film photography. Starting in 1888, when George Eastman created the company, Kodak led the world of technology, until its own invention, the digital camera, caused it to fall into obscurity. Kodak’s leadership chose not to adapt to the shift in interest to digital photography, and as a result they lost a major opportunity, continuing to lose business and eventually filing for bankruptcy in 2012, becoming known as a company which failed to innovate (Prenatt 1-5). Despite these events, Kodak is still operating today, and with some now shifting back to film photography, Kodak is still a major supplier of roll film. As film photography finds a place back into the modern world, designers like myself seek to view roll film as a product through a modern lens. In this paper, through an investigation of Kodak’s company practices and guidelines, I will analyze how energy is used and transformed during procurement of raw materials, as well as the manufacturing, transportation, use, and disposal of the Kodak film roll, to ascertain an idea of the embodied energy throughout its life cycle.

The life cycle of any product starts at the point of raw material acquisition, and for making roll film, it has many raw materials to acquire (Shanebrook, 17). Though I was unable to find much relevant information concerning Kodak’s raw material suppliers, we can examine the different raw materials and the energy used in their acquisition. These raw materials can be split into two categories, the raw materials used to make emulsion, and the materials used for the film base. The first major raw material in emulsion is silver. One of the sources of silver is recycled silver from sources such as photographic materials and chemicals, but we will address this later. Another source is primary silver mining, but since silver mining is usually found in mineral ores and not in its pure form, silver is also found as a byproduct of mining for other precious metals (The Natural Sapphire Company). Halide salts such as sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium iodide (KI), potassium bromide (KBr), and sodium bromide (NaBr) are another important component of roll film emulsion production. These are also obtained through underground mining methods, with machines cutting veins of salt from the earth and using equipment to transport it (Morton Salt). The mining industry makes up about 1.7% of the world’s global energy use, usually through the use of diesel, fuel oil, and electricity in the extraction and refining processes (Aramendia 1). Another major material necessary for the production of emulsion is cattle bone, which is used to create gelatin. In addition to the greenhouse gas emissions, cattle farms consume a significant amount of energy. In a study of dairy farm energy consumption, “primary energy consumption values ranged from 2.7 MJ kg−1 ECM on organic dairy farming systems to 4.1 MJ kg−1 ECM on conventional dairy farming systems,” with indirect energy consumption like fertilizer and production of feed taking up 68% of total consumption, and direct energy consumption through the use of fuels and electricity taking up 32% of total energy consumption (Shine 4-6, 19). 

One of the types of film base, ESTAR, uses petroleum-based polyester. Being derived from petroleum, energy is consumed in the extraction of crude oils from the earth, the transportation of oil in tankers, the refinement and distillation of the crude oil to create petrochemicals, and polymerisation of hydrocarbons to make polyethylene (Baheti). The other film base is Cellulose Triacetate film base (CTA). CTA is created with a combination of the raw materials acetic acid, wood, and cotton. Acetic acid is mainly produced in Asia and North America, with methanol carbonylation, the main method of production, requiring energy to perform the high pressure, high temperature procedure (Le Berre et al.). In the US, wood and wood waste made up 6.9% of total industrial sector energy consumption in 2022, with the industrial sector accounting for 61% of that consumption (Wood and Wood Waste - U.S. Energy Information Administration). Cotton requires high energy use, with a recent study showing cotton production requiring 83,869.49 MJ ha−1, from machinery(fueled by diesel), electricity, and fertilizer (Yeşim Aytop 11). Though these materials are necessary for the production of roll film, it is important to note the ways in which raw materials acquisition consume energy to understand the environmental impacts. 

Roll film is produced in Eastman Business Park, located in Rochester, NY. According to Making Kodak Film, one of the coating machines used to create the film is about 100 feet tall (using four levels of the building it is housed in), with a footprint of nearly two acres. The basic process of making photographic film involves the coating of emulsion onto the film base. The making of the ESTAR film base is made from PET resin pellets, which are melted and cast on a rotating wheel. While being cast, the wheel is cooled in order to solidify the PET. The PET is then stretched and then coated with non-image coating, then is wound up to be coated with emulsion later. Acetate film base (CTA) is made by combining cellulose triacetate pellets, solvents, and a plasticizer to create a thick dope solvent. The dope is cast on a rotating wheel, this time so the dope will evaporate, leaving a clear plastic base to be peeled off. This base is coated with non-imaging coating as well, and then wound up to be used later. The emulsion is made by combining silver nitrate, halides, and gelatin. For the silver nitrate, pure silver ingots are dipped in nitric acid to create silver nitrate, which is then combined with halides in water to create silver halides. The cattle bones are demineralized and washed, then gelatin is extracted from the bones. This gelatin is separated and purified by hydrolysis. Gelatin is used to suspend the silver halide crystals in their formation, also giving them an enhanced reaction to light. It also absorbs chemicals during development. The gelatin is melted at 100 degrees Fahrenheit to be coated onto the film base. To coat this film base with the emulsion, a film coating machine unwinds and accumulates the film base from its roll to be coated with a continuous stream of liquid emulsion. The film is chilled to set the emulsion, and dried to evaporate the liquid, and then the film base is winded back up to form large rolls. The film is then finished by being cut to the proper size, placed into plastic or metal canisters, and packaged in cardboard cartons (Shanebrook 16-56). 

Due to the sheer scale and complexity of the film coating process, it can be difficult to quantify the energy consumption of this process. Operations mentioned above such as melting, chilling, drying, casting, stretching, coating, accumulating, winding and unwinding, cutting, packaging, and transportation requires Kodak to use a lot of energy, especially for such a large device. Kodak’s 2023 Sustainability Report claims that Kodak overall consumed 858,601,080,129 kJ in the previous year. Of the total energy consumed, 80,065,846,533 kJ was consumed through use of non-renewable fuels (there was 0 kJ consumed from renewable fuel sources). 719,229,269,120 kJ came from non-renewable sources of electricity (mainly natural gas), while 57,692,548,800 kJ came from renewable sources of electricity, and 1,613,415,676 kJ was the total steam consumption. These statistics come from the company’s overall energy use throughout all their sectors, not for roll film production in particular. However, this still can give us an idea of how energy is used and transformed in the production process. Chemical energy in the form of natural gas and electrical energy are obtained by Kodak and transformed into thermal and mechanical energy needed to perform the operations to create a film roll. It’s clear from these statistics that Kodak’s operations require a large amount of energy, most of which comes from non-renewable sources. In their report, Kodak claimed they would strive to make their company more sustainable and energy efficient, so this could change in the future (Kodak 20).

Kodak transports their products to stores and their customers through shipping companies such as FedEx, USPS, Southeastern, and Purolator (Kodak). The majority of the shipping done for Kodak is done by truck, for parcels, LTL (less than truckload) shipments, and TL (truck load) shipments. The majority of these trucks use diesel, converting chemical energy into kinetic energy, though some data shows that about a third of that fuel energy is lost to friction within the vehicle’s internal mechanics (Holmberg, 94). Some shipping companies, like FedEx, are also using electricity or renewable diesel as their trucks’ fuel sources (FedEx Newsroom). According to a report by the U.S. Department of Transportation’s Bureau of Transportation Statistics, freight trucks made up 5,939 trillions of Btu (1,740,549,085,752 kWh) consumed in 2021 (Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 2021). For domestic air shipments, Kodak uses FedEx, Purolator, and CEVA (Kodak). These companies use jet fuel to run their airplanes. According to the Bureau of Transportation Statistics, 1,545 trillions of Btu (452,794,803,416 kWh) were consumed in 2022 (Bureau of Transportation Statistics). Though Kodak doesn’t consume this energy directly, this is the result of Kodak’s methods of distribution.

Once a user receives a roll of film, the standard use of the product is to be used in a film camera. Film cameras may be manual-only, but some sophisticated film cameras have advanced features. For manual film cameras, the film is usually inserted by opening the camera back, inserting the film canister into the rewind spool’s slot, feeding the film into the take-up spool, closing the camera, winding the film, and then taking pictures until the entire roll of film is shot. Afterwards, the film is rewound back into the canister by the film camera’s rewind knob, and then taken out to be developed and scanned (Nook 5-13). These operations don’t require the use of batteries, only needing the user to expend their own energy to run the camera’s inner mechanisms. However, certain types of film cameras use batteries to run their functions, such as electronic shutters or built-in light meters. These types of film cameras may use button batteries, AA batteries, or AAA batteries, converting chemical energy into electrical energy during use (Kelvin).  Film is developed using developers (chemicals), and can be developed at home, or in a professional lab, where more energy may be expended in transportation (Andrae). While blank film can be stored, film that has been used and developed isn’t intended to be reused. Overall, not much energy is being transformed during the product’s use.

The end of the life cycle concerns the recycling and waste management of film. In this, recycling isn’t merely an option, but a requirement for safe waste management of film. This is because the silver contained in photographic materials and chemicals is considered hazardous waste. Certain companies will accept photo negatives so they can recover the silver and recycle it (Belsey-Priebe). Silver can be recovered by the process of electrolysis, a technique which uses a direct electric current to separate the silver out(Hilliard 8; Kimbrough 203) . As mentioned previously, this process is a major source of silver (The Natural Sapphire Company; Hilliard 1). However, due to the fact that regular recycling centers are not able to properly recycle photographic film and photo negatives, many online sources recommend just throwing these materials into the trash. 

A roll of film may seem small and insignificant, but its creation is extremely complex and grand in scale. The energy cost, in turn, is also quite significant. From silver and salt mining, to cattle raising, to the massive Kodak coating machine, to shipping on both land and in the air. These energy intensive parts of a roll of film’s life cycle build up to a high embodied energy, not to mention the high environmental impact. If film photography becomes prevalent in our society once again for some reason, Kodak and its suppliers should strive to become more energy efficient in each step of the production of roll film, not letting themselves be content with outdated strategies.

Bibliography

Andrae, Monika, et al. The Film Photography Handbook : [Rediscovering Photography in 35 Mm, Medium, and Large Format]. Santa Barbara, Ca, Rocky Nook, 2016. search.library.ucdavis.edu/permalink/01UCD_INST/9fle3i/alma9919264303706531 

Aramendia, Emmanuel, et al. “Global Energy Consumption of the Mineral Mining Industry: Exploring the Historical Perspective and Future Pathways to 2060.” Global Environmental Change, vol. 83, 1 Dec. 2023, p. 102745, www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0959378023001115, doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2023.102745. 

Baheti, Payal. “How Is Plastic Made? A Simple Step-By-Step Explanation.” British Plastics Federation, British Plastics Federation, 2024, www.bpf.co.uk/plastipedia/how-is-plastic-made.aspx.

Belsey-Priebe, Maryruth. “How to Recycle Old Pictures.” Ecolife.com, 9 Mar. 2023, ecolife.com/recycling/hazardous/how-to-recycle-old-pictures/. Accessed 4 June 2024.

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“FedEx Express Begins Use of Renewable Diesel to Reduce Well-To-Wheel Carbon-Emissions in Linehaul Truck Network.” FedEx Newsroom, 14 Nov. 2022, newsroom.fedex.com/newsroom/europe-english/fedex-express-begins-use-of-renewable-diesel-to-reduce-well-to-wheel-carbon-emissions-in-linehaul-truck-network#:~:text=As%20of%20the%20beginning%20of.  Accessed 4 June 2024. 

“Freight Transportation Energy Use & Environmental Impacts.” U.S. Department of Transportation, Bureau of Transportation Statistics, Freight Facts and Figures (2019). Data.bts.gov, data.bts.gov/stories/s/Freight-Transportation-Energy-Use-Environmental-Im/f7sr-d4s8/. 

Le Berre, Carole, et al. “Acetic Acid.” Ullmann’s Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 26 Mar. 2014, pp. 1–34, https://doi.org/10.1002/14356007.a01_045.pub3. 

Hilliard, Henry E. Silver recycling in the United States in 2000. US Department of the Interior, US Geological Survey, 2003 https://pubs.usgs.gov/circ/c1196n/c1196n.pdf 

Holmberg, Kenneth, et al. “Global Energy Consumption due to Friction in Trucks and Buses.” Tribology International, vol. 78, Oct. 2014, pp. 94–114, doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2014.05.004.  Accessed 4 June 2024. www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0301679X14001820#s0150  

Kelvin, Kiev. “Do Film Cameras Need Batteries: A Comprehensive Guide - Kiev Kelvin.” Kievkelvin.com, 6 Apr. 2023, kievkelvin.com/blog/do-film-cameras-need-batteries/#:~:text=While%20some%20film%20cameras%20do.  Accessed 4 June 2024.

Kimbrough, David, et al. “A Critical Review of Photographic and Radiographic Silver Recycling.” Journal of Resource Management and Technology, vol. 23, Nov. 1996, pp. 197–207. researchgate.net. www.researchgate.net/publication/282994300_Critical_review_of_photographic_and_radiographic_silver_recycling  Accessed 2 May 2024.

Magaudda, P., & Minniti, S. (2019). Retromedia-in-practice: A practice theory approach for rethinking old and new media technologies. Convergence, 25(4), 673-693. doi.org/10.1177/1354856519842805 

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Prenatt, Deborah, et al. "How underdeveloped decision making and poor leadership choices led Kodak into bankruptcy." Inspira: Journal of Modern Management & Entrepreneurship 5.1 (2015): 01-12. www.researchgate.net/profile/M-Saeed-2/publication/354332113_HOW_UNDERDEVELOPED_DECISION_MAKING_AND_POOR_LEADERSHIP_CHOICES_LED_KODAK_INTO_BANKRUPTCY/links/61320a10c69a4e4879768c56/HOW-UNDERDEVELOPED-DECISION-MAKING-AND-POOR-LEADERSHIP-CHOICES-LED-KODAK-INTO-BANKRUPTCY.pdf 

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Madison Hyler-Smith

Henry Xu, Mateenah Muhammad

DES 40A

Professor Cogdell

Waste Within Kodak Film Rolls

The film roll has been around since the summer of 1888. The film roll has changed significantly since then, mainly by becoming more eco-friendly and sustainable. However, The way it is used has mostly stayed the same. Britannica defines a film role: “The term roll film is usually reserved for film wound up on a spool with an interleaving light-tight backing paper to protect the wound-up film.”(Britannica). There are three types of film bases you may see. The main two are polyester and cellulose acetate; nitrate film is the least common. All three of these are still in use, but not all are produced. Each is made from different materials and has advantages and disadvantages in human and environmental health. The leading producer of these films and the company that created these film bases is Kodak. This company will be the highlight of this research paper. All the steps Kodak has taken so far to make it more friendly. The waste and problems that come from the three film bases Along their lifecycle are all different but ultimately have the same effect on the earth. 

When Kodak film rolls, and others were first produced, they were made from a nitrate base. Nitrate film has not been produced in the U.S. since 1950 for several reasons. Although it produces excellent films, it is very toxic and dangerous in more ways than one. While no longer manufactured and not the main focus of this project, it’s important to note that, in the U.S., a few places still hold nitrate, along with a few places, like the Egyptian Theatre, that still project film with a nitrate base. These companies must take multiple preventive measures to keep these rolls from bursting into flames or spreading toxic gasses. The decomposition is the worst part of a nitrate-based film roll. It shrinks to the point of being unusable. On top of that, as the film starts to break down, it releases harmful gasses such as nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide. Both of these gasses, if ingested by humans, can cause damage to your respiratory system, skin and eye irritation, or several respiratory diseases. Along with the potential effects on the human body, there are multiple issues these gasses can cause to the environment, adding to the greenhouse gasses and smog in our atmosphere. To solve these problems, Kodak started using a Cellulose acetate base in the 1920s and a polyester base in the 1950s, which is still used in film rolls today.

Both polyester and cellulose acetate bases are way better than nitrate bases, but they still have their own set of issues to consider. Cellulose acetate, described by an article in ScienceDirect, “is typically made from wood pulp through a reaction with acetic acid and acetic anhydride in the presence of sulfuric acid to form cellulose triacetate.” (ScienceDirect, 2010). With this being said, when researching cellulose acetate, you realize that it is a double-edged sword when it comes to being harmful and non-harmful. While acetic acid and acetic anhydride are not necessarily detrimental to the environment, they are toxic to humans (the people who make them). Acetic acid in low volumes, like in vinegar, is acceptable and generally non-toxic. Factory workers are highly susceptible to skin, eye, mucus membranes, and upper respiratory irritation when used in higher concentrations. Workers may develop tissue irritation if the skin is exposed for long enough. To avoid such situations, companies must provide proper safety equipment and ventilation systems. While highly corrosive, acetic anhydride has been deemed not harmful to human life or the environment. The levels of exposure the humans and the environment get to this chemical are negligible. While these two are not the worst raw materials out there combined to create cellulose acetate, we have started to see some higher-level environmental issues arise. Polyester is not anywhere near close to the eco-friendly level as cellulose acetate is

Polyester is a fully synthetic fiber and is not biodegradable. Polyester can take hundreds of years to degrade. Along with it not being biodegradable, it can contaminate our environment. When polyester items get sent to landfills, the harmful chemicals and materials used to make polyester can filter into the soil, run off into the water, and contaminate the water supply for the population close to that landfill. Polyester is a solid fiber with tensile solid strength; because of this, it is very resistant to temperature changes, which solves the previous problem of film bursting into flames if not adequately regulated. 

Cellulose acetate, while still made with materials such as wood pulp and other plant scraps, is still artificial and semi-synthetic. Cellulose acetate is widely used as a chemically modified polymer, adding to the semi-synthetic aspect of the compound. Of the seven primary microplastics/plastics found in the ocean, cellulose acetate was one of the primary compounds. Even though we say cellulose acetate is biodegradable, in some cases it is not. Depending on what the cellulose acetate helped create, it can lead to microplastics. Polyester, having a solid fiber, when made into a film, can have a shelf life of up to 500 years with safety film. Otherwise, it can have a shorter shelf life. Film with a polyester base is highly light-sensitive, leading to the emulsion of the film itself. As stated above, the polyester film base is super solid and elastic, which is good until you need to cut your film. The more challenging base makes it harder to cut and splice film together. The only way you can do this is by fusing your film with heat, which renders the film useless in editing. While both cellulose acetate and polyester film bases are better than nitrate film bases, they still have many disadvantages regarding the raw materials, waste, and harmful chemicals they make. However, making and using the raw materials of these bases are not the only contributing factors to the waste materials that they make. 

When manufacturing and producing the film, there is not a lot of waste produced in these processes. When you are in these factories that make the film, as stated before, if not adequately ventilated or given proper protective gear it becomes very hazardous. The main issue with it being dangerous in theory is that it is not labeled as a hazardous chemical. Factory workers can be exposed to all types of chemicals, including but not limited to developer, fixer, bleach, and stop. When exposed for too long, these chemicals can cause eye and skin irritation, amongst many other health problems. The main issue that constantly pops up regarding health issues in production is respiratory issues. When speaking about the chemicals used and the gas emissions that come from the production process, they are all hazardous if inhaled. This leads to irritation and congestion in the lungs. It can also cause respiratory diseases or cancers. This is why the argument regarding producing these film bases is so stressed that proper equipment and ventilation are used. While there is also talk about skin and eye irritation, respiratory issues are the ones that people are most susceptible to and cause the most harm. This leads us to the gas emissions produced in the transportation of the products, not only in the creation.

Only a little information has been released about the waste produced while transporting Kodak film or any Kodak products. However, it is estimated that 3% of greenhouse gas emissions are created from the transportation and distribution of products globally. Kodak, each year, posts a public report of its goals, how it wants to improve, and numbers regarding a few areas. They have also stated they are committed to using company trucks and moving across countries using public roads or land. They do this in countries like the United States, Germany, and Japan. Doing this minimizes the transportation/shipping time, thus reducing the carbon footprint produced in the process. They have also stated, “To reduce emissions, Kodak continues to monitor and follow regulatory obligations regarding equipment and operational efficiency, as well as environmental product specifications where applicable.” (Kodak, 2023). As a company, Kodak has been very open about its goals to be more environmentally friendly and how it still needs some work in specific areas during production. Kodak has also created ways to help reuse film rolls, film canisters, and much more. 

There are many ways you can reuse pieces of film rolls, but there are also many ways they can’t make it more reusable. The first way to be more sustainable is simply repurposing the film canisters. Once you have put the film into your camera, the plastic container that stores the film just gets thrown away and has no other use beyond holding that set of film before use. Instead of throwing it away, you can turn it into something new, such as a storage container for other items. For example, you can store miscellaneous things like screws, coins, batteries, or even spare camera parts. You can also use it as a new food container or first aid kit or donate to homeless shelters (they reuse them for portioning toiletries). The second way to reuse is by reusing film rolls to load new film by bulk loading. This is the process of spindling a more significant role of the film (about 100 feet) into old/used canisters with a bulk loader. With this process, you can decide the number of frames you have, whether that be 10 or 40 frames. This reduces the environmental footprint left behind by buying a whole new roll each time you need film, reducing the amount of money you have to spend. Bringing back in Kodak, they, along with other manufacturers, set up places where you can drop off your old film rolls or canisters so that they can repurpose them or recycle them to reduce plastic pollution. You sometimes have to bring the product back to the company, depending on your product. What the product is made of cannot be simply thrown away and must be returned to the manufacturer or other film distributors.

You need to take a few steps before you decide how to dispose of your film rolls. Before that, the packaging of film rolls, typically made from polyethylene, could simply be recycled and made into new material. Material like composite lumber or plastic bags. The first step is to find out what type of film you have. As described earlier, each film base is made of different chemicals, thus requiring different disposal methods. Nitrate film should never be discarded with regular garbage; you must check with your local government agency for the proper disposal method. Two things to keep in mind when doing so: first, you should always choose a nitrate-based film with the safety film that is being sent out for silver recovery. Safety film is made with polyester or cellulose acetate film and has a silver compound within the film itself. The second thing you must remember is that nitrate-based film cannot be mailed out to the proper disposal sight. This is because of the unstable handling and the constant temperature change. Both of which can lead to the film bursting into flames. Nitrate film is the least common film base, so it is unlikely that the average person will come into contact with this type of film. The main focus for most individuals is to focus on whether they have color or black-and-white film. 

After deciding on the type of film you want, you can move on to the next step in the disposal process. If you have black and white film, you must dispose of it properly and not simply throw it away. B&W film is typically made with silver halides, which are toxic and treated as hazardous waste material. Color film is sometimes made with organic dyes, making it not harmful, so you can just toss it out at home. However, it usually contains the same silver as B&W film and possibly other metals. Airing on the side of caution, look up the film type on the manufacturer’s website and figure out the proper disposal of their colored film, which is the last step in the process. Ensure you follow your local regulations and the manufacturer’s advice on properly disposing of your movie. Just throwing away the film can lead to hazardous materials entering the water, soil, and animal supply. 

The film roll is much more complex to create and dispose of than one may think. Even something as simple as a roll of film has a lot of waste and gathering of toxic chemicals and materials. With the high probability of respiratory harm to factory workers and the increasing levels of greenhouse gasses, we need to find a more sustainable base for film to reduce these harmful levels of waste. Along with that, we can find a way to decrease the amount of microplastics being put into the ocean from the bases, making them more biodegradable. While Kodak is good at keeping on top of their equipment and operational efficiency there are still ways to improve. They are finding ways to make things more reusable and disposable so as not to keep this “cradle to grave” sort of path white these film rolls. They are focusing on the sustainability of the product and not efficiency, keeping both in mind, not just one. 

Work Cited

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