Design Life-Cycle
assess.design.(don't)consume
Eduardo Chavez Chavez 1
Professor Cogdell
DES 40A
March 15, 2023
Roland TR-808: Raw Materials
Ever since the rise of technology, we’ve begun to see replacements for acoustic instruments in the music industry. One prime example of this is the drum machine, an electronic musical instrument that can mimic all the classic sounds of a drum kit with a wide variety of other sounds as well. This drum machine can be used in virtually any genre that uses drums and has been used from pop, rap, and hip hop. One type of drum machine I would like to focus on is the TR Roland-808, which provided more freedom in terms of beats and revolutionized the music of the 80s, being popularized by huge artists such as Kanye West. This electronic musical instrument has an interesting life cycle similar to other electronics, specifically in acquiring the raw materials necessary for manufacturing, distribution, and ultimately use and recycling.
First, the materials needed to get started in creating a Roland TR-808, like many electronic devices, is made up of various types of plastic and metal. One of the most commonly used plastics in these electronic devices is acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) which is a lightweight and durable plastic that's used for electronic device casings, buttons, and knobs. This type of plastic is extracted by “emulsion or by polymerizing styrene and acrylonitrile in the presence of polybutadiene. This process
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produces a long chain of polybutadiene that crisscrosses with shorter chains of polystyrene-co-acrylonitrile, creating strong bonds.” (Fast Radius), it's also very versatile and used in other products such as belt buckles and LEGO bricks. There’s also various types of metals used in the Roland TR-808 but the main ones are aluminum and copper. Aluminum is usually used for electronic casings because of its durability and light weightiness and its primary production phase involves extracting aluminum from bauxite ore through a process of crushing and grinding the ore, dissolving aluminum oxide with caustic soda, and precipitating aluminum hydroxide from the solution. This aluminum hydroxide is then heated to high temperatures to produce aluminum. The aluminum scraps are then taken to recycling facilities to get ready for the manufacturing process.
The manufacturing process for the Roland TR-808 is very elaborate, ranging from circuit board manufacturing, plastic molding, metal machining, to rubber molding. First, the plastic casing is created through an injection molding process, where the molten ABS plastic is injected into a mold and then cooled down and hardened into its final shape. Next, the aluminum components are created through a process known as CNC machining, where a block of aluminum alloy is cut and shaped using computer controlled tools to create the metal case. Rubber also plays a major part in this process as it's used in its buttons and switches, specifically silicone rubber. This type of rubber is very heat and chemical resistant making it a great choice for most electronics, and it’s made using a process called addition polymerization. This is where the materials are mixed together, melted at high temperatures, and then processed to create the buttons
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and switches needed for the machine. Then, the circuit board is also made up of copper foil, solder mask, and silkscreen which are necessary for electrical conductivity, mechanical stability, and environmental protection. Also, other materials such as solder paste and surface mount components are used to glue the components to the board and complete the circuit. Other manufacturing processes used include various components such as metal screws, resin, and glass into a finished product.
Once the parts are manufactured, they must be transported and distributed to retailers for sale and the materials used in this process are mostly plastic components, as the circuit board and knobs for the instrument are typically transported in packaging made of thin plastic sleeves or bags. The plastic sleeves are then placed inside a cardboard box along with other components of the instrument such as aluminum screws, rubber pads, copper wires, resin and glass. Cardboard is also used for transportation purposes, which is made from layers of kraft paper pressed and glued to make corrugated cardboard, which is cut, printed, folded, and glued to make the boxes. The cardboard box is then sealed and transported to distribution centers, where it is prepared for shipment to retailers. Other raw materials involved in the transportation and distribution process include foam padding used to protect the instrument during shipment. The foam padding is placed inside the cardboard box alongside the other components to ensure that the instrument is not damaged during transport. This foam is made in big blocks by mixing oil-based chemicals together, these chemicals react and change from a liquid to a solid state. This forms a block of soft and absorbent materials we call foam, its then cut into the small pieces used to fit inside the
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boxes. The instruction manual, which is printed on paper, is included in the packaging and provides users with information on how to use the drum machine. During the packaging process, the company also provides four double AA batteries which are made up of lithium, manganese dioxide, graphite and other additives.
The Roland TR 808 is a high-end drum machine that is often used by professional musicians and producers and due high demand, the machine is often reused or resold rather than being thrown away. A lot of the time, the instrument is usually resold on reseller websites to people who are trying to get into music production since these machines are on the lower end in terms of cost, or to collectors who are interested in vintage items. The circuit board inside of the machine could also be recycled or used by repairmans, hobbyists or designers who want to sell or use this circuit board for other projects. Also, the machine's batteries can be replaced and recycled, and the machine itself can be repaired if necessary. Also, many of the parts of the Roland TR 808 can be recycled, including the aluminum and plastic components.
In conclusion, the life cycle of the Roland TR 808 involves several steps that require the use of various materials and can have environmental implications. While recycling and disposal of electronics are usually very uncommon, there are many ways that can reduce waste and promote sustainable practices such as reselling or reusing. We see that the most common materials used in the process of making one of these machines is aluminum, plastic and rubber which are very common in almost all electronics made today. While a lot of take for granted this drum machine, they tend to overlook the processes to obtain the raw materials necessary to manufacture this
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product. I believe that everyone should take some time to look into the work and materials that goes into making their favorite products as it would help us gain a greater appreciation for our favorite products.
CITATIONS:
“Get Started with ABS, a Popular Manufacturing Plastic.” Fast Radius, 14 Sep. 2022, https://www.fastradius.com/resources/know-your-materials-acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene-abs/.
“Printed Circuit Board.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 12 Mar. 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printed_circuit_board.
“Extruded Aluminum Shapes - Tri-State Aluminum.” Tri, 3 Mar. 2023, https://tri-stateal.com/extruded-aluminum-shapes/.
“Aluminum Recycling.” All Green Electronics Recycling, 27 Nov. 2020, https://allgreenrecycling.com/aluminum-recycling/.
“Roland TR-808 Rhythm Composer” Meyers, Owen 2003
“Home.” The Drum Recycler, 24 June 2020, https://thedrumrecycler.com/.b
“How is rubber made? - ERCA - Natural and synthetic rubber.” ERCA The European Rubber Chemicals Association, https://erca.cefic.org/how-is-rubber-made/.
Roland TR-808 Service Notes. 1981, https://www.florian-anwander.de/roland_tr808/roland_TR-808_service-manual.pdf.
“Everything you ever wanted to know about the Roland TR-808 but were afraid to ask” Fact Magazine https://www.factmag.com/2014/01/16/roland-tr-808-beginners-guide-everything-you-ever-wanted-to-know-introduction/2/
“Drum Machine.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 7 Feb. 2023, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drum_machine#Labor_costs.
Marques, Andre C., et al. “Printed circuit boards: A review on the perspective of sustainability.” Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 131, 2013, pp. 298-306. ScienceDirect, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030147971300649X.
Cosme Medina
Professor Cogdell
Research Paper
13 March 2023
Energy Sources in Roland’s TR-808 Life Cycle
In the late 1970s to early 1980s, Roland became the frontrunners of analog music production with the introduction of drum machines alongside their already popular line of analog synthesizers. Engineered by Tadao Kikumoto and Hiro Nakamura, the TR-808 was in production from 1980 to 1982, lasting only two years before being discontinued. However, the TR-808 grew a cult following years later as units became available at cheap prices in second hand stores. The TR-808 became popular in demand due to its unique sound only capable through the use of the unit’s transistors. Researching the TR-808’s manufacturing process and after-market resale value is important to understand the drum machine's life cycle and how it is unique from other electronic products. Nevertheless, the TR-808 is still a product of the Silicon Era, meaning the energy sources to make the drum machine (and similar electronic products) are harmful to the environment. The thermal and mechanical energy inputs required for the production and distribution of Roland’s TR-808 contribute to significant portions of its environmental impact, however this also presents opportunities for improvement of production through transitions from using fossil fuels and carbon to greener energy sources. By analyzing the energy sources used throughout the extraction of raw materials, manufacturing, distribution, usage, and disposal of the TR-808, we can understand the product’s life cycle in full extent.
The TR-808 is a product of the early Silicone era, meaning that there is heavy reliance on plastics, rare metals, and silica as the basis for its raw materials. The extraction of these raw materials can be broken down through mining, drilling, carbon reduction, and smelting. While these materials may differ, they share similar energy sources that use fossil fuels to power machines of extraction. For instance, the creation of silicone used for the transistors on the TR-808 begins with the sourcing of silica in mines across the country. Silica mining involves the usage of bulldozers, frontloaders, and other utility vehicles to bring piles of sand grain onto conveyor belts that lead to on-site plants where it is further purified into crystals. Opposition to silica mining in rural towns has significantly grown in the past years due to concerns of greenhouse gas emissions caused by all-day operations of utility vehicles and purification plants. Silica mining has also caused health concerns over silicosis, caused by breathing in silica dust particles over long periods of time. Similarly, the extraction of aluminum from bauxite ore through strip mining along the Earth’s surface also involves reliance on heavy machinery. The combination of fossil fuels, as well as deforestation in some countries have made a drastic negative impact on the ecosystem around bauxite mines. Copper that is needed for the printed circuit boards of the TR-808 is extracted through mining with heavy machinery or through blasting. Once filtered and concentrated, the ore is then smelted in furnaces powered by coal or fossil fuels. Furthermore, oil drilling as a means for the creation of polymers is done through large drilling machines. In the past, drilling machines were powered by internal combustion engines, but have since been switched to electric engines. Gathering raw materials for production is the most energy intensive part of the TR-808’s life cycle. A solution to greener energy sources from the extraction process can completely change the way electronic products are manufactured and improve the carbon footprint they leave behind.
In the manufacturing process, printed circuit boards are coated with a thin layer of copper to improve conductivity with the transistors and capacitors. This takes precision-accurate machines to do so. The energy source to make the PCBs is a combination of mechanical and electrical energy. As machines are lifting, coating, and transporting each piece through the process they are also being powered by electricity in the manufacturing plant. Transistors and capacitors are then soldered to the circuit board with electric soldering kits that use heat (thermal energy). Electrical wires to power the unit are then added by technicians. Once the internal arrangement of the unit is ready, the next step is to create the external parts like the knobs, buttons, and casing. Factory workers oversee the production of the plastic materials beginning with the heating of polymer pellets into plastic within high temperature furnaces. In the 1980s, furnaces in factories were often powered by burning coal. The melted plastic is then poured into molds that correlate with each piece. After the plastic molds are cooled, workers will then take each part and assemble the unit according to its casing. After the product is completely assembled, sound engineers will take each unit through sound testing to make sure they are up to Roland’s standard noise profiles. While the manufacturing process seems complicated, most of the steps involve machines powered by an electrical power source. Humans are also working alongside machinery to place parts in their intended assembly. The main energy source used in manufacturing the TR-808 is electricity generated in power plants from burning coal. Manufacturing the TR-808 seems to be the least energy intensive part of the drum machine’s life cycle considering that electricity is really the only energy source.
Further along the life cycle of the TR-808 involves distribution and transportation. Distribution begins with product packaging done by workers at the end of the assembly line. The use of cardboard as packaging material is one of the only things in the life cycle that are actually recyclable. Workers then load semi trucks with packaged products for transportation to retail stores across the country. The primary energy source used in the distribution process is the mechanical energy from workers who are lifting products into truck containers. In the case that forklifts are used instead, the forklift is usually powered by fossil fuels in internal combustion engines. Moreover, the primary energy source used in the transportation process is the burning of fossil fuels, specifically diesel, by semi trucks traveling from one location to another. For global transportation, products are loaded into shipping containers at port locations which will travel across sea on cargo ships. Cargo ships use heavy fuel oil as its primary energy source which is high in sulphur levels compared to other fossil fuels. While heavy fuel oil is relatively cheap, pollution has overall increased since the widespread use of cargo ships in the global economy. Scientists and engineers are working on different energy sources to create greener ways of transportation for truck delivery and shipping. Some attempts include the recent introduction of electric semi truck vehicles as well as the use of clean diesel instead of heavy fuel oil in cargo ships. As cargo ships continue to get larger, the reliance on fossil fuels will also increase until other sources of energy become reliable. In comparison to other parts of the life cycle, distribution and transportation seem to be somewhat energy intensive and contribute to the environmental footprint of greenhouse gas emissions.
Once the TR-808 reaches the hands of its consumers, each unit is powered by a D/C power cable that is plugged into a power outlet. As an electronic product, the TR-808 is reliant on electricity as an energy source. Like the process on the assembly line, the usage of the product is by electric and mechanical energy. The producer, or musician, that uses the drum machine must have access to electricity within the building that they’re in. The electricity that powers the building is generated by miles of electrical lines that eventually lead to local power plants. The 1980s saw a halt in nuclear power plant construction after global concerns over the Chernobyl incident. Most likely, the power plants back then used coal to fuel the plant and generate electricity. The TR-808 is a relatively small electronic device that uses only 8 Watts of power consumption. Once the TR-808 is turned on, it becomes a staple in music production for its users in bedroom and professional studios.
The final step in the TR-808 life cycle is unique as it differentiates itself from other electronic devices of its time due to its high value. Overtime, the TR-808 became revolutionary for its sound capabilities and became the primary drum machine used in the creation of hip-hop, R&B, and electronic music in the 80’s and 90’s. The rarity of the TR-808 is due to its special transistors and the fact that only 12,000 units were made. This means that the recycling process of the TR-808 involves more of a resale market where owners are able to sell their units at high prices to other producers or enthusiasts. The second-hand market of the TR-808 is small as it is expected the people that have them will hold onto them for many years. In the case that they are disposed of, it is likely that they are either stripped for parts or they are completely thrown away. Unfortunately, Roland has not indicated a proper process for recycling of the TR-808. Therefore there is no real energy source in the last step of the life cycle process.
In all, Roland’s TR-808 is an incredible piece of music technology created in the 20th century that is truly ahead of its time. Nevertheless, the amount of fossil fuel energy used to produce the product is similar to other electronic devices today. In order for drum machines to become more sustainable in the future, scientists and manufacturers will have to come up with different energy sources to eliminate the CO2 emissions caused by fossil fuels and natural gasses. The extraction of the raw materials to make the TR-808 is the root of its environmental impact. Once a greener energy source is found, a replacement of metal or other eco-friendly materials can be switched out for plastic parts on the unit. Roland can also designate a recycling policy with clear directions that may drive consumers towards recycling electronic products more often.
Bibliography
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Canopoli, Luisa, et al. “Degradation of excavated polyethylene and polypropylene waste from landfill.” Science of The Total Environment, vol. 698, 2020. ScienceDirect, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0048969719341026. Accessed 9 February 2023
“Everything you ever wanted to know about the Roland TR-808 but were afraid to ask” Fact Magazine https://www.factmag.com/2014/01/16/roland-tr-808-beginners-guide-everything-you-ever-wanted-to-know-introduction/2/
“How is rubber made? - ERCA - Natural and synthetic rubber.” ERCA The European Rubber Chemicals Association, https://erca.cefic.org/how-is-rubber-made/. Accessed 9 February 2023.
Karian, Harutun, editor. Handbook of Polypropylene and Polypropylene Composites, Revised and Expanded. Taylor & Francis, 2003, https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=C0nzeNPUpoIC&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&dq=polypropylene&ots=LZx1y_i65n&sig=aBMVvGUuGGmXUY4TiG_b8GcF6NI#v=onepage&q=polypropylene&f=false. Accessed 9 February 2023.
Marques, Andre C., et al. “Printed circuit boards: A review on the perspective of sustainability.” Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 131, 2013, pp. 298-306. ScienceDirect, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030147971300649X. Accessed 9 February 2023.
“PCB Manufacture: How are PCBs Made.” Electronics Notes, https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/constructional_techniques/printed-circuit-board-pcb/pcb-manufacturing-process.php. Accessed 9 February 2023.
Roland. “The TR-808 Story.” Roland, https://www.roland.com/global/promos/roland_tr-808/.
Semtech. “2SC828 Datasheet, Equivalent, Silicon Transistor.” 2SC828 Transistor Datasheet Pdf - Silicon Transistor. Equivalent, Catalog, https://datasheetspdf.com/pdf/855809/SEMTECH/2SC828/1.
Soldered.com. “More about Transistors.” Soldered Electronics, 23 Feb. 2023, https://soldered.com/learn/more-about-transistors/.
Itsuki Hirano
DES 40A
Professor Cogdell
13 March 2023
Drum Machine Wastes
Drum machines are electronic instruments that allow musicians to create beats without using real percussion instruments, and Roland’s TR-808 specifically, is a drum machine that has been a significant part of the popular music culture since the 1980’s. The original TR-808 only had about 12,000 units produced, and is considered vintage in the current market. Because of its value on the market, it is not very likely to see the TR-808 ending up in waste, but there are many wastes that occur through the whole life cycle of the TR-808 from its creation, through its uses, and to the end of its life. The most significant wastes in drum machines come from the raw materials and manufacturing stages such as waste water and spills in petroleum refineries which are important for both plastic and synthetic rubber, and also chemical wastes in printed circuit board manufacturing, which can all be hazardous to the environment. While it is more likely that a TR-808 will be reused rather than being discarded, it will reach an end at some point and it is important to note how each component of the product will be recycled or disposed of.
While we were unable to find the complete components of the TR-808 or drum machines in general, we can focus on some materials listed on Roland’s service notes. One of the raw materials that has the most significant effect from waste during acquisition is petroleum, which is used in both polypropylene, a type of plastic, and synthetic rubber. Petroleum needs to be refined in order to form materials such as plastic and synthetic rubber, and there are wastes in the refineries that can be dangerous. Some pollutants from petroleum refineries include benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, xylene, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons. Some of the pollutants, such as benzene, are carcinogenic and can cause skin, bladder, or lung cancer. Polyaromatic hydrocarbons are substances that can cause long term damage to internal organs such as kidneys and lungs, and can also cause asthma. There can also be environmental hazards that can occur from petroleum leakages. Oil can cause hypothermia for animals and birds by inhibiting the insulation of their furs and feathers. There can also be harmful effects to the reproductional abilities of fish and other marine animals. The cleanup of spills is difficult, and only about 40% are able to be cleaned up by man power, and requires natural recovery for the rest. While petroleum is the main focus of this phase, there are many different raw materials used in drum machines such as aluminum. Aluminum initially comes from bauxite ores, and the production of aluminum from bauxite requires the use of heavy machines, and this contributes to 0.4 gigatons of carbon dioxide emissions, which is about 10 times the amount of emission from the production of copper. The printed circuit board, which will be the main focus of the production phase, also requires different raw materials not mentioned here such as silicon.
Similarly to the raw materials, the manufacturing process of the TR-808 and other drum machines are not exactly stated, so the main focus will be on the manufacturing of the printed circuit board which is an essential part of a drum machine. Printed circuit boards are created through a set of many complex steps, and there are different types of wastes that come from these processes. Some of these wastes include hazardous liquid wastes from the etching process. These liquid wastes are solutions that can be strong acids or strong bases, and can contain high amounts of “heavy metal content and high chemical oxygen demand (COD) values” (EPA). There are other hazardous wastes from trimming and hole drilling, and also excess lead and tin that end up in wastes. These wastes can contain useful metals like copper, and recovery processes are being used and further researched to recycle the metal components of the wastes, so that the byproducts of the manufacturing processes are not being wasted, and also to minimize the environmental effects of them. After this manufacturing phase, the TR-808 will be transported to the user for them to create music.
In the transportation phase, there is not much that makes the TR-808 and other drum machines unique from many other types of electronic devices. In the case of TR-808, we will make the assumption that deliveries will be done using diesel trucks which is a main type of trucks used in the shipping industry. “The average diesel delivery truck emits 18.7 tons of carbon dioxide annually” (Folger). The use of these trucks have impacts on the environment through air pollution and contribute to global warming. We can also assume that cardboard is used for packaging since the TR-808 is a fairly large product, and the user of the product will have to dispose of these cardboards. While cardboard can be recycled, not everyone recycles the cardboard boxes: “The U.S. recovers about 70% of all corrugated cardboard boxes for recycling” (Okafor). The rest of the cardboard that does not not get recycled will either be composted or end up in landfill. While cardboard is not as toxic as plastic when it decays, it still is not the ideal way. As cardboard is decomposed, it releases methane which is a greenhouse gas that significantly contributes to global warming. In a landfill, the cardboard either decays or is incinerated which will produce greenhouse gasses to the atmosphere.
Once the box is opened, the user is able to activate the TR-808 using AA batteries. These batteries contain metals that can be hazardous and need to be disposed of properly. In California, it is required to “be recycled or taken to a household hazardous waste disposal facility, a universal waste handler (e.g., storage facility or broker), or an authorized recycling facility” (CalRecycle). TR-808 is valuable and it is not easily disposed of when there are malfunctions, so repairs are needed. In many cases, the repairs are done by simply taking the machine apart and replacing broken parts. The wastes in the repair process will come from these replaced parts, and how some of the materials that make up the parts are disposed of will be discussed in the next and final phase, the end of use.
An end of use for one user, does not mean the end of life for a TR-808 as it has high value on the market, and is likely to be reused by another user, or end up in the hands of a collector. While its life cycle likely continues, there will eventually be an end to it, and so it is important to mention how the TR-808 will end up in disposal, and the focus will be on the main components mentioned earlier. Polypropylene, since it is a type of plastic, is recyclable but the recycling requires separating processes and melting processes that require machinery and energy uses that can produce carbon emissions and other harmful byproducts. Not all of the plastic disposed of will be recycled, and some will end up in landfills causing pollution to the environment. Polypropylene when it is not recycled can be harmful to marine life when it is discarded in water, and it will have a long term effect in soil since it is not biodegradable. In the case of rubber: “the conventional waste management methods mainly focus on collecting the waste, burning the waste, and disposal (open dumping, landfills)” (Chitella et al). The recycling process for rubber needs to be developed further, and disposed rubber are also ending up in landfills causing pollution. With aluminum, a large proportion of the material disposed of will be recycled, and 80% of aluminum production in the U.S. is from recycled aluminum. Printed circuit boards are difficult to recycle because of their complex structures, and the different components need to be separated before recycling. The recycling methods are in need of improvement because some materials used in printed circuit boards such as lead can be toxic when they end up in landfills.
There are various wastes in the life cycle of a TR-808 through the raw material acquisition of petroleum and aluminum, the manufacturing of printed circuit boards, transportation and packaging, use in the hands of musicians, and then finally at disposal where different parts may be recycled or end up as waste. Finding information about details that are specific to the TR-808 or drum machines was difficult, and this life cycle analysis is likely similar to many other electronic products. Although, one thing that stands out about this product is that the TR-808 is being used for a long time compared to many other electronics like our smartphones or computers. While there are many wastes that can be problematic through its life cycle, it is a positive factor that the problem of obsolescence that is common in electronics is not causing the TR-808 to be discarded and replaced so quickly.
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BustedGear.com. “Roland TR-808 Repair.” Replacement Parts for Guitar Amps & Music Keyboards, https://www.bustedgear.com/repair_Roland_tr808_step_switches.html. Accessed 13 March 2023.
CalRecycle. “Batteries - CalRecycle Home Page.” CalRecycle, 2023, https://calrecycle.ca.gov/reducewaste/batteries/. Accessed 3 March 2023.
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Chittella, Harika, et al. “Rubber waste management: A review on methods, mechanism, and prospects.” Polymer Degradation and Stability, vol. 194, 2021.
EPA. “Printed Circuit Board Recycling Methods.” Workshop Materials on WEEE Management in Taiwan, Handout 10, 2012.
EPA. “Used Household Batteries | US EPA.” EPA, 2023, https://www.epa.gov/recycle/used-household-batteries. Accessed 3 March 2023.
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Folger, Morgan. “Electrify UPS: A zero emission shipping strategy.” Environment America, 14 October 2021, https://environmentamerica.org/center/articles/electrify-ups-a-zero-emission-shipping-strategy/. Accessed 3 March 2023.
Karian, Harutun, editor. Handbook of Polypropylene and Polypropylene Composites, Revised and Expanded. Taylor & Francis, 2003.
Marques, Andre C., et al. “Printed circuit boards: A review on the perspective of sustainability.” Journal of Environmental Management, vol. 131, 2013, pp. 298-306.
Moffa, Phil. “Roland By The Numbers.” Red Bull Music Academy Daily, 13 November 2014, https://daily.redbullmusicacademy.com/2014/11/roland-by-the-numbers. Accessed 9 February 2023.
OECD Environment Directorate. OECD Global Forum on Environment. OECD, 2010.
Okafor, Jennifer. “Environmental Impact Of Cardboard.” TRVST, 16 September 2022, https://www.trvst.world/environment/environmental-impact-of-cardboard/. Accessed 3 March 2023.
Our Endangered World. “Is Polypropylene Bad for the Environment?” Our Endangered World, 28 November 2021, https://www.ourendangeredworld.com/eco/is-polypropylene-bad/. Accessed 13 March 2023.
Partow, Hassan, and Mark Radka. “How to manage the damage from oil spills.” UN Environment Programme, 7 October 2021, https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/story/how-manage-damage-oil-spills. Accessed 10 March 2023.
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