Design Life-Cycle
assess.design.(don't)consume
work by Aiden Hatch, Meredith Meninno, and Kalon (Cecelia) Moco
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RESEARCH PAPERS
Materials Paper:
by Meredith Meninno
The Victoria’s Secret T-Shirt Bombshell Bra: A Raw Material Analysis
Introduction
As a brand immersed in controversies from the early 2000s to the 2010s, Victoria's Secret’s rebrand as a body-positive and sustainable intimates company has rewarded it praise for its part in pushing for the prioritization of inclusion and ethics in the industry. According to a statement made on their corporate responsibility website, Victoria's Secret is “committed to understanding the impact of our products from raw material extraction to end of life.” However, the primary raw materials of one of their most popular garments, the Victoria's Secret Bombshell T-Shirt Bra, have considerable environmental consequences. The net impact on the environment between each of the raw materials used in this bra - cotton, polyester, recycled polyester, polyamide, elastane, and modal - play a significant role in the unsustainability of the garment’s life cycle as their extraction, manufacturing, and disposal cause harm.
Product Introduction
The Victoria's Secret T-Shirt Bombshell Bra contains two subcategories within the product title, the cotton bra and the smooth bra. Cotton makes up 53% of the cotton bra’s body and wing lining, with other materials including modal, making up 36% of the material composition, and elastane, making up 11%. However, the cup lining is 100% recycled polyester. For the smooth bra, polyamide makes up 66% of the bra body’s material composition, while the wing lining contains 75% recycled polyamide. The second largest portion of the material composition is elastane, making up 34% of the bra body and 25% of the wing lining. The cup lining is 100% recycled polyester. Through out this paper, the processes of extraction, manufacturing, and disposal will be analyzed for all of the materials used to make both subcategories of the bra.
Cotton
Extraction
Modern farming methods for cotton are both water and pesticide heavy. Due to the vulnerability of the crop to many insects and diseases, the crop is doused with pesticides and other chemicals. According to an open case study published by the University of British Columbia, cultivated cotton uses a staggering 16% of the world’s insecticides and 6.8% of the world's herbicides despite only taking up 2.5% of total agricultural area. This heavy use of chemical management harms both the nearby lands and waterbodies. Runoff of pesticides pollutes both surface and groundwater sources, harming the local ecosystems. Consistent use of land for cotton cultivation can also result in soil salinization due the high quantity of water used for the crop’s irrigation. On the global scale, cotton pesticides release large amounts of carbon dioxide as well as nitrous oxide, which contributes to global warming on a scale 300 times that of carbon dioxide. Once the plant has matured and is ready for harvest, more chemicals are used to induce a natural process known as defoliation, in which the plants shed their outer leaves. To remove contaminants that remain after defoliation, the cotton is machine harvested to extract the plant fibers and form bales that can then be processed into fabric.
Manufacturing
After harvest, the raw cotton has to be processed in order to be viable for garment production. Before being sent to textile production facilities, the cotton must be purified through a process known as ginning. The basic steps of this process are as follows:
The cotton is dried, removing 5-8% of its moisture.
Sticks, stems, and other large debris are machine extracted from the bales.
Cotton is sent through the gin to remove seeds and purify it into fibers.
Fibers are sent through a two-step lint cleaning process.
The bales are stored for shipment.
Ginning is an energy intensive process, using large amounts of thermal and electrical energy. For one bale of cotton, drying alone uses 350,000 Btu’s on average, while the cleaning and debris extraction processes, powered by large electrical motors, consume 90 kilowatt hours per bale.
Once the cotton is ginned and purified, it is shipped to a textile production facility, usually via truck or railway. At this facility, the fibers are first formed into long strands through a mechanical process known as carding. These long strands are then spun to create yarn usable in weaving. Before weaving, the yarn goes through any dying or chemical processes required for the final garment. The most common treatment is mercerization, where yarn is soaked in sodium hydroxide for a short amount of time to improve its strength and responsiveness to dye. Sodium hydroxide is potentially harmful to the environment if not managed properly.
Cotton is most commonly dyed using direct dyes, mordant dyes, or sulfur dyes. Direct dyes require no mordant and can be derived from natural sources. However, direct dye is unable to produce bright colors and can only be used on cellulose based textiles like cotton. Mordant dyes require a chemical binding agent inorder to color the fabric. Common mordants used in cotton dying include aluminum potassium sulfate, stannous chloride, ferrous sulfate and copper sulfate. Mordant wastewater can harm local ecosystems by raising the concentration of metal ions in the local water bodies. Sulfur dye is most commonly used on cotton based yarn and fabrics. More than 50% of the dye is washed off during the dying process causing large-scale aquatic contamination. Sulfur dye is non-biodegradable, lasting in ecosystems for long enough to biomagnify across the food chain due to widespread consumption of the toxin.
Disposal
At the end of its life, cotton textiles tend to be disposed of in large landfills. However, throughout the process of cotton textile production, multiple steps can be taken to improve waste management. From the harvesting and ginning process, the leaves, stems, and other remaining agricultural waste can be composted inorder to reduce carbon emissions and aid in soil fertility restoration. As a finalized garment, the cotton fabric can also be recycled to create new garments and other items. However, due to recycled cotton’s lower quality it tends to be blended with new cotton. Cotton recycling has the capacity to reduce textile waste but is not currently a widespread process.
Polyamide and Recycled Polyamide
Extraction
Polyamide is a type of synthetic fabric often used for sportswear and tights due to its stretchability. The most commonly used polyamide is nylon, though the term polyamide can refer to a variety of fabrics. Victoria's Secret does not specify what type of polyamide is used in the Bombshell T-Shirt Bra. The primary raw material of polyamide is crude oil, from which diamine acid is extracted. Adipic acid, which is either derived from crude oil or synthetically produced, reacts with the diamine acid in order to form the base polymer. The production process of adipic acid releases nitrous oxide into the atmosphere. Due to their origin in crude oil, both diamine acid and adipic acid are inherent pollutants contributing to global climate warming.
Manufacturing
After the base polymer is formed from the chemical reaction of the diamine and adipic acid, it is heated into a molten material. The most common polyamide - polyamide 6, also known as nylon 6 - melts at a temperature of 210-220 degrees celsius. Once molten, the polyamide must be cooled to 55-80 degrees celsius before undergoing extrusion, the process of pressing the molten material into small holes to form fibers. A large quantity of water is needed to cool the molten polyamide to the temperature range desired for this process. With improper disposal, this wastewater can harm the environment, dispersing microplastics into nearby aquatic bodies. These fibers are loaded onto bobbins and stretched to improve their give and then loaded on a spool. Finally, the fibers are ready to be made into fabric, usually in mixture with other textiles when used for garments.
Disposal
Once discarded, polyamide fabric either enters a landfill or it is recycled. The Victoria's Secret T-Shirt Bombshell Bra uses both new and recycled polyamide. The recycling processes of polyamide fall into two categories, mechanical and chemical. Mechanical recycling involves grinding down fabric scraps to then melt them into new products. Chemical recycling breaks down the textile at the molecular level to create new products. Recycling of polyamide has a lower carbon footprint than the initial manufacturing process, but still contributes to global emissions.
Elastane
Extraction
Elastane, also known as spandex, is another synthetic fabric that is used for its stretchability and resistance to body oils, sweat, and sunlight. Polyurethane, a long chain polymer derived from crude oil and natural gas, is the main material in elastane. Macroglycol and a diisocyanate monomer known as MDI are needed for the reaction process which produces the prep-polymer used in the fabric. Macroglycol is extracted from crude oil, while the diisocyanates are derived from other chemical reactions. All of the materials used to make elastane are non biodegradable and inherent pollutants due to their origin in fossil fuels.
Manufacturing
To start the manufacturing process of elastane, first a prepolymer must be formed. This is done through a chemical reaction between macroglycol and MDI (methylene diphenyl diisocyanate). After this mixture is prepared, the material is dry spun and put in reaction with diamine acid in a process known as a chain extension reaction. As mentioned in the previous section on polyamide, diamine acid is also derived from crude oil. Once extended, the material is diluted with a solvent to thin it and make it easier to extrude. The most common solvents are DMF (dimethylformamide) and DMAc (dimethylacetamide) which are both toxic for the environment. Once diluted, the material is placed into a fiber production cell and then extruded through a spinneret. The fibers are then heated with a nitrogen and a solvent gas solution to mold into solid strands. Any excessive nitrogen release into the atmosphere can cause pollution and acid rain. After the material is formed into strands, it is spun and treated with magnesium stearate to prevent fiber adherence. Finally, the fibers are ready to be woven or dyed. When elastane is dyed on its own, it is treated with metal-complex monoazo dyes. However, similarly to polyamide, elastane is typically blended with other textiles when used for garments. When blended with cotton, direct dyes can be used.
Disposal
Elastane is nonbiodegradable and difficult to recycle despite efforts by scientists to discover a method to extend the life of this fabric. The mixture of elastane into other textiles, such as the blended fabric used in the Victoria's Secret T-Shirt Bombshell Bra, renders it essentially non recyclable. This fabric is also a source of microplastic pollution as it breaks down.
Polyester and Recycled Polyester
Extraction
Polyester is one of the most widely used textiles due to its high breathability and durability. As with the previously discussed synthetic fabrics, synthetic polyester is derived from crude oil. The two main ingredients of polyester are ethylene glycol and dimethyl terephthalate (DMT). In order to extract ethylene, the oil must be first processed into petroleum and then further refined in order to obtain the compound. Refining oil into petroleum releases an assortment of toxins into the atmosphere, harming both terrestrial and aquatic life. It is possible to derive ethylene from plant-based sources to make polyester, but it is currently uncommon. Victoria's Secret does not specify what polyester is used in the T-Shirt Bombshell Bra.
Manufacturing
To begin the process of creating polyester, ethylene glycol and DMT are reacted at a high heat to produce a base monomer. This monomer is again reacted with DMT to create the polyester polymer. The molten material is extruded into long strips which are then broken into pieces after cooling. These pieces are melted down again before extruding through a spinneret to make the polyester fibers. Once made into fibers, polyester goes through any further chemical treatment. The most common treatments of polyester include formaldehyde and sodium hydroxide, both of which are toxic. Victoria’s Secret claims to not use formaldehyde in their apparel. In order to dye the fabric, disperse dyes are used at temperatures between 120 and 130 degrees celsius. The conventional dispersants used in the dyes have low biodegradability.
Disposal
Polyester is either disposed of in landfills or recycled. In landfills, the degradation of the material contributes to microplastic pollution. Recycling polyester helps prevent the macroplastics from entering the ocean, though the process still contributes to microplastic pollution. Recycled polyester also maintains the quality of the original material while emitting significantly less CO2 than the initial manufacturing process. However, color inconsistencies in the recycled material requires bleaching treatment to mitigate. Chlorine-based bleach contributes to ozone depletion and is carcinogenic to aquatic, terrestrial, and human life.
Modal
Extraction
Modal is a semi-synthetic fabric made from a combination of reconstituted tree cellulose, sodium hydroxide, and carbon disulfide. It is often considered to be a more eco-friendly type of rayon than viscose because of the lower amounts of sodium hydroxide used in processing. The use of carbon disulfide can be a cause of concern due its neurotoxic properties when entering the environment through contaminated water and air. The type and source of the wood used also impacts the sustainability of the fabric. Victoria's Secret sources its modal from Lenzing, a PEFC certified manufacturer that is said to sustainably harvest forests.
Manufacturing
In order to make modal, first the trees from which the cellulose is extracted are harvested. When sourced from natural forests, this harvesting increases the amount of carbon in the atmosphere. To extract the cellulose, the wood must first be cut down into chips. Commercial wood chippers use diesel gas as fuel, which is a source of carbon emissions. On the industrial scale, the fuel used is indeterminate and depends on the manufacturer. Once cut into chips, the cellulose is extracted through a chemical process using sodium hydroxide and sodium sulfide at high temperature and pressure, both of which are potentially toxic to the environment. The extracted cellulose is then made into sheets that are steeped in sodium hydroxide producing sodium cellulose xanthate. These sheets are then broken down again to be soaked in carbon disulfide. The breakdown of carbon disulfide can produce the indirect greenhouse gases carbonyl sulfide, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide. The cellulose xanthate is once again treated with sodium hydroxide before being extruded through a spinneret to create fibers. These fibers are treated with sulfuric acid and stretched to produce a yarn. Before undergoing any further treatment or dying, the yarn is bleached. Common treatments include anti-wrinkle and fire resistance, both of which are chemically intensive processes.
Disposal
In the initial processing of modal, a majority of the harvested tree material is wasted since only the cellulose is used. Modal is technically biodegradable due to its plant-based material, but this can be hindered depending on the dying process. Lenzing uses spin-dying, which allows the material to maintain its biodegradability. However, it is possible that the blended textiles manufactured by Victoria's Secret could undergo further chemical processing that impacts the biodegradability of the material.
Bra Assembly
Assembly
Though the specifics of Victoria’s Secret’s processes remain undisclosed, the manufacturing of bras tend to follow the same general progression. Specified patterns are first cut from the desired material via computerized technology. Then, each part is sewn together. Commercial manufacturing of bras uses large industrial grade sewing machines to piece together the portions of the bra. These machines are typically run on fossil fuels, which are known to be linked to the global climate crisis. Once assembled, the bra is packaged, usually in plastic, and shipped to stores or consumers. The distance covered to ship the garments varies on the location.
Shipment
According to the Victoria’s Secret corporate responsibility website, the company’s manufacturing mainly takes place in Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, the United States, and China. The source of their raw materials is undisclosed, though they claim to be making efforts to purchase directly from US farmers. However, India and China are the largest producers of the materials listed in the Victoria’s Secret Bombshell Push-Up Bra material composition. According to statista, 837 Victoria’s Secret stores are located in North America with the other 533 stores located internationally (mainly in China). The export of the bras between the Asian and North American continents uses large amounts of fossil fuels to power cargo tankers across the globe.
Conclusion
Despite efforts by Victoria’s Secret to manage its environmental impact, the mass production of garments such as the Bombshell T-Shirt Bra causes harm to the environment through greenhouse gas emissions, use of toxic substances, production of nonbiodegradables, and overall unsustainable practices.
Works Cited
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Embedded Energy Paper:
by Aiden Hatch
Life Cycle Analysis: T-Shirt Bombshell Bra
“From 1998 to 2013, the consumption of textile fibers per person increased by approximately 1.5 times, and by 2050, it is projected to double.” This burgeoning demand is coupled with a staggering environmental footprint, “nearly 63% of these fibers are made from petrochemical materials”—a foreboding trend that reveals the textile industry’s reliance on nonrenewable resources (Sadeghi and Marfavi). Victoria’s Secret’s T-Shirt Bombshell Bra is made from a blend of materials—cotton, modal, and elastane for the body and recycled polyester for the cup lining— that exemplifies said reliance. The energy-intensive processes involved in producing semi-synthetic blends, such as those used in the T-Shirt Bombshell Bra, complicates recycling methods and increases transportation needs, contributing to a larger environmental burden and unsustainable product. This life cycle analysis aims to elucidate the energy consumption associated with the production of these materials. In the age of the Anthropocene, such transparency is necessary—now more than ever—to shed light on the environmental negligence of the textile industry and inspire sustainable solutions.
The globalization of textile production lends itself to a complex supply chain that mystifies the origins of raw materials and necessitates heavy reliance on fossil fuels. While the sources— aside from cotton—and processing methods of Victoria’s Secret raw materials are not fully disclosed, one can speculate based on industry conventions and leading suppliers. In the
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succeeding paragraphs, the primary constituents of the T-Shirt Bombshell Bra will be examined—starting with cotton, followed by modal, elastane, and recycled polyester. According to their website, Victoria’s Secret sources their cotton from multiple farms across fifteen countries, each with distinct production methodologies. Irregardless of location, the energy expenditure for cotton begins before sowing, during soil preparation—tilling, plowing, crushing, fertilization, and crop rotation, all employ diesel-powered machinery. Once seeds are planted, a process also reliant on diesel fuel, energy is expended for irrigation and pesticide application. Because cotton has a high need for water and is acutely susceptible to pests, crop maintenance requires extensive energy inputs. A 2023 study on Turkish cotton production reported farmers applying pesticides an average of 6.77 times and performing irrigation 4-5 times at intervals of 15-20 days over the course of the growing season (Aytop). Irrigation is powered by electricity, the use of which varies by system and distance from the water source, while pesticides are applied by fossil-fueled planes and tractors or electric pumps. Harvesting involves mechanical cotton pickers, which store cotton in baskets, and module builders, which compact collated cotton into round modules for ease of transportation to nearby cotton gins—this stage uses diesel fuel for machinery operations. In order to commodify the mechanical harvest, gins dry and clean seed cotton, separate fiber from seeds, further clean fibers, and then package them for sale (“Cotton Fiber Harvesting and Ginning”). “Recent studies found that average electricity use at gins is approximately 35 kWh per [module]” half of which “is used for material handling, primarily by the large centrifugal fans used to convey materials” (Funk and Hardin, 156).
Modal is a semi-synthetic fabric— sourced from beech wood—produced and trademarked by Austrian company Lenzing AG. Compared to cotton, beech trees require 10-20
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times less water for maintenance, resulting in less energy allotted for irrigation (“What is Modal Fabric”). Half of the beech trees come from Austria, while the rest are from other European countries. After being harvested by diesel-powered logging equipment, the wood is transported to the pulp production facility in Lenzing by electric rail or diesel truck. The wood is then subjected to electrically powered mechanical pulping in preparation for its chemical and physical transformation into fiber. By-products from this process—bark, thick liquor and soda extraction liquor—are used as fuel to maintain the temperature conditions needed for the chemical processing, formation, and finishing of modal fiber. The remaining 40% of total heat requirements “are covered by externally purchased bark and a municipal solid waste incineration plant” (Shen and Patel, 9). Finished fibers are then packaged by electrical packaging machinery before being transported to textile mills. Despite the recovery and use of production energy, modal manufacturing remains an energy-intensive process—for every tonne produced, 77 GJ of energy is consumed (Shen and Patel, 24).
Elastan —also known as spandex or Lycra—is a synthetic fabric composed of petroleum-based raw materials. Crude oil is extracted from the earth, commonly at an onshore drilling site powered by an electric grid or diesel-fed generators that burn up to 5000 liters a day. Extracted oil is then transferred to nearby refineries—by electric-powered pipelines or diesel-fueled tanker trucks—where it is refined into the monomers—such as ethylene and propylene—needed for further chemical synthesis. Refining requires ample thermal—often from natural gas—and electrical energy to maintain reaction temperatures and power machinery, as does the remaining process, which involves polymerization and dry spinning. By the time of completion, approximately 380 MJ of energy is consumed for every 1 kg of elastane fiber
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produced, with additional electricity used after production for packaging (van der Velden and Patel).
Recycled polyester (rPET) is derived from its virgin counterpart—a synthetic, petroleum-based resin. Much like elastane, polyester's primary raw material— ethylene— is refined from crude oil and undergoes a similar process to transform a monomer into a finished fiber, yielding a marginal difference in energy consumption, approximately 355 MJ/kg of fiber (van der Velden and Patel). Studies indicate that producing rPET requires 30-60% less energy than virgin polyester—a result of oil refinement and polymerization being unnecessary for recycling (Hopewell and Dvorak). The recycling process begins with the collection and sorting of post-consumer plastic and textile waste, which are energy-intensive steps involving diesel-fueled trucks for transportation from collection sites to electrically or man powered sorting facilities. After sorting, the plastic waste is cleaned and shredded into small flakes. These flakes undergo a melting process to form pellets, which are subsequently melted, extruded into fibers, and packaged. Each stage—from collection to fiber packaging—utilizes electricity for machinery operation and thermal energy for melting plastics.
It is important to note the embodied energies of these materials are relative to the scale, location, mechanization, and practices of the operation in question. For example, an organic cotton farm dependent on rain for irrigation and animate prime movers will have drastically different energy consumption than a fully mechanized operation. Despite the disparity in origin, raw materials end up in either Vietnam or Indonesia—by way of land and sea transport powered by diesel and heavy fuel oil (HFO) respectively—at one of the many apparel manufacturing facilities employed by Victoria's Secret, where they are then processed and assembled into the final product.
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The manufacturing stage is a water and energy-demanding operation that begins with the preparation and blending of cotton, modal, and elastane fibers into yarn and, subsequently, fabric—this is followed by sizing, singeing, and desizing for improved quality. The fabric is then scoured, bleached, and dyed to achieve the desired color—in this case—gray and the texture. Finally, the highly processed fabric is cut and sewn into bras and the auxiliary components—such as the recycled polyester cup lining, hooks, and tags—are implemented thereafter. The total energy consumption from fiber preparation to packaging includes about 21% for fiber preparation, 11-18% for spinning, and 23% for weaving. Water consumption is notably high during singeing, desizing, scouring, and dyeing, where collectively, up to 45,000 liters per 1000 kg of fabric is consumed (Farhana and Kadirgama). End products are then packaged using electrically powered machinery in preparation for distribution.
Victoria's Secret produces their bras in Vietnam and Indonesia, shipping them primarily to their main U.S. distribution center in Columbus, Ohio. As of 2022, ocean freight has become the preferred method for transporting goods from Southeast Asia to the U.S. Specifically, by large container ships, which travel an average of 528 nautical miles per day and consume approximately 0.327-0.435 metric tons of fuel per mile (S, Dimitri). For a journey of about 10,000 miles from Vietnam or Indonesia to the nearest U.S. port vis-a-vis Ohio—the Port of New York and New Jersey—a ship would use anywhere from 3,270 to 4,350 metric tons of fuel. Upon arrival, the bras are transferred to HGVs for the overland stint of their journey. According to the Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders, an average HGV, with a payload of 26 tons, consumes about 30 liters of fuel every 62 miles. To reach Columbus, Ohio, a distance of about 560 miles, 271 liters of diesel fuel would be required per vehicle. Once at the distribution center, the bras are sorted and redistributed to Victoria’s Secret’s 837 U.S. stores and 533 international
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stores. Assuming similar logistics for international distribution centers, transportation involves HGV journeys and similar fuel consumption. Bras are then sold at retail stores and subsequently used, re-used, and maintained by purchasers over the duration of the garments' useful life.
Once in the hands of consumers, the energy expenditure associated with the T-Shirt Bombshell Bra is drastically abated—fluctuating based on the frequency of washing and drying, the types of detergents used, and the efficiency of household appliances. Although this portion of the life cycle is the least energy-intensive, it still contributes to the overall environmental footprint of the bra and, therefore, is worth mentioning. As the bra nears the extent of its usefulness, proper disposal should be prioritized to minimize further resource depletion. Of the current disposal methods available, incineration for energy recovery is favored over recycling and landfill discardment as the best practice for end-of-life management.
The T-Shirt Bombshell Bra poses insurmountable challenges for recycling due to its composition. The intricate blending of different materials reduces the effectiveness of fiber separation, elastane in particular—according to recycling expert Emanuel Boschmeier—presents a major obstacle. Even in small quantities elastane’s stretchiness negates conventional shredders, rendering standard methods impractical. This lack of reliable recycling options predisposes blended textiles to landfills, where they generate greenhouse gas and leach toxic chemicals into the soil. However, incineration offers a circular alternative with considerable energy recovery—for every 660 MJ/ton of energy expended, 10,800 MJ/ton of thermal and 12,400 MJ/ton of electrical energy is recovered (Farhana and Kadirgama). Unfortunately, of the 17 million tons of textiles generated in 2018—per the EPA—11 million tons were landfilled and only 2 million tons were incinerated for energy recovery. These alarming statistics signal the
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need for more sustainable end-of-life management and recycling innovations in the textile industry.
The journey of the Victoria’s Secret T-Shirt Bombshell Bra, from raw material extraction to end-of-life, unveils the intricate tapestry of energy consumption and need for sustainable practices at all stages in modern textile manufacturing. As “World fiber production has seen a continuous increase over the last decades[, reaching] well above 100 million tons of produced fibers per year,” the industry's dependence on energy-intensive processes raises distressing concerns about the depletion of natural resources (Peterson). Under the current linear means of manufacturing, growth is inextricably linked to environmental pressure. By questioning the origins of textiles, favoring single-fiber fabrics, and limiting frivolous consumption, a transition toward circularity is not only feasible but also a necessity for a healthier planet.
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Bibliography
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Farhana, Kaniz, et al. “Energy consumption, environmental impact, and implementation of renewable energy resources in Global Textile Industries: An overview towards circularity and Sustainability.” Materials Circular Economy, vol. 4, no. 1, 29 Mar. 2022, https://doi.org/10.1007/s42824-022-00059-1.
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Funk, Paul A., and Robert G. Hardin IV. “Cotton Ginning Handbook: Energy Utilization and conservation in Cotton Gins.” Journal of Cotton Science, vol. 21, no. 2, 2017, pp. 156–166, https://doi.org/10.56454/tblf7573.
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S, Dmitry. “Ship Fuel Consumption per Mile Explained [+5 Examples].” Maritime Page, 14 Dec. 2023,
maritimepage.com/ship-fuel-consumption-per-mile-or-how-much-fuel-does a-cargo-ship-use/.
Sadeghi, Banafsheh, et al. “Recent studies on recycled PET fibers: Production and applications: A Review.” Materials Circular Economy, vol. 3, no. 1, 22 Jan. 2021, https://doi.org/10.1007/s42824-020-00014-y.
Shen, Li, et al. “Environmental impact assessment of man-made cellulose fibers.” Resources, Conservation and Recycling, vol. 55, no. 2, Dec. 2010, pp. 260–274, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resconrec.2010.10.001.
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Van der Velden, Natascha M., et al. “LCA benchmarking study on textiles made of cotton, polyester, nylon, acryl, or elastane.” The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment, vol. 19, no. 2, 4 Sept. 2013, pp. 331–356,
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Zamani, Bahareh. “Carbon Footprint and Energy Use of Textile Recycling Techniques.” Chalmers University of Technology, 2011.
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Waste and Emissions Paper:
by Kalon (Cecelia) Moco
Life-cycle Assessment of the Victoria Secret Bombshell T-Shirt Bra: Waste and Emissions
Introduction:
As long as I have been aware of the company Victoria's Secret & Co I've known them to be controversial. Some of their past controversies include oversexualization of women, body shaming, anti LGBTQ+ sentiment, and even connections to Jeffrey Epstein. When my group decided to research one of the best known items from Victoria’s Secret for our Life-cycle assessment research project, we chose the item because we knew how essential bras are to at least half the population. We thought that the environmental effects of an item that is so commonly used would be worth studying. Additionally, we knew that bras and other feminine products were statistically more likely to be overlooked by researchers. With a passion for our environmental and feminist cause we cemented the bombshell T-Shirt bra as our chosen item of research. With distant and recent memories of Victoria’s Secret headlines I had little hope for the company's environmental impact.
A company's environmental impact can be illustrated through the life-cycle of their products. A product’s life-cycle involves the material and energy inputs as well as the waste and emission outputs that occur at each step of that product's life, from the raw materials to the landfill. The Victoria’s Secret Bombshell T-shirt bra is made up of a body/wing lining that is 53% cotton, 36% Modal, and 11% Elastane as well as cup lining that is 100% recycled polyester. For this paper I will be analyzing the waste and emissions created by the bra at each of the following steps: 1.) Raw material acquisition, 2.) Manufacturing, processing, and formulation, 3.) Distribution and transportation, 4.) Use/re-use/maintenance, 5.) Recycle, and 6.) Waste management. I believe that the life-cycle assessment of the waste and emissions of the Victoria’s Secret Bombshell T-Shirt Bra will reveal that the company’s reliance on creating their products with synthetic fabrics contradicts their recent sustainability campaign and cements their products as both non-circular and having many harmful by-products.
Raw Materials Acquisition:
To understand the waste and emissions of the Victoria’s Secret raw materials acquisition process, there needs to be a focus on each component of the bra and their related suppliers. This section will start with modal, then address elastane, cotton, and lastly recycled polyester.
Victoria’s Secret reveals that they use two companies for their man-made cellulosic fibers, Lenzing AG and Birla Cellulose. Man-made cellulosic fibers are called rayon which encompasses modal, viscose, lyocell/tencel, and cupro. The cellulose needed for these fabrics comes from beech trees. Lenzing says that they farm wood sustainably from Australia, but just the act of farming wood and transporting it has waste. For example, the drying step of beech wood releases 51.6 kg of CO2 for a 4/4 inch log. There is also the transportation of the wood. This accounts for half the carbon footprint of the beechwood production process. In summary, the process of farming and transporting beechwood to create modal creates CO2 emissions as a byproduct.
Elastane is a stretchy synthetic fabric made up of a long chain polymer called polyurethane.Victoria’s Secret does not directly reveal their elastane supplier so there is no way to verify how environmentally conscious the supplier is. However, the main raw material needed for elastane is petroleum which is not at all sustainable. The process of obtaining petroleum involves extraction, transportation, and refining. The extraction stage creates methane emissions, and produces chemical residue that can contaminate soil and water. The transportation stage emits CO2 and has a risk of oil spills. Lastly, the refining process has byproducts such as sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, hazardous solid waste, and several greenhouse gasses. The process of obtaining the petroleum needed to make elastane has many harmful byproducts.
Victoria’s Secret requires that their cotton products originate or are spun in countries where cotton farming is allowed, sadly this does not guarantee that the cotton is farmed sustainably. Cotton cultivation can lead to soil erosion and degradation. The growing of cotton also involves a lot of fertilizers and pesticides which pollute the water and soil as well as cause health problems for farmers and nearby populations. There is also transportation involved in the cotton process which leads to greenhouse gas emissions. The farming practices of cotton creates harmful byproducts and is often what keeps the product from being considered sustainable.
The last component of the bra is recycled polyester. Recycled polyester often comes from plastic water bottles and not pre-used polyester clothing. Since clothing is often a blend of different materials it can be too difficult to separate the polyester to recycle it. Tuning plastic bottles into clothes requires a mechanical recycling process. This process often blends the recycled polyester with new virgin polyester which is made from petroleum just like elastane. While recycled polyester uses less initial resources than virgin materials, the recycling process still uses fossil fuels and emits greenhouse gasses.
The Victoria’s Secret Bombshell T-Shirt bra produces a variety of harmful waste just from the processes involved in obtaining the raw materials of each component. Even though the bra uses materials like modal, cotton, and recycled polyester which seem more environmentally friendly, being sustainable is sadly not that simple.
Manufacturing, Processing, and Formulation:
Again to understand the waste and emissions of the manufacturing, processing and formulation of Victoria’s Secret bra, each component of the bra will need to be addressed individually. Like the last section we will start with modal, then address elastane, cotton, and lastly recycled polyester.
The Lenzing process of creating modal is actually relatively environmentally friendly. The cellulose pulp from beech trees goes through a few chemical processes to become fibers. The two main concerns of modal production are forest destruction and harmful chemicals. One area that can cause confusion is that the chemicals used during this process vary vastly because different chemicals can create different varieties of fabric. Lucky for Victoria Secret, Lenzing AG is known for being a more eco friendly company and is certified with both the EU ecolabel and the Forest Stewardship Council. Additionally, Lenzing has a closed loop production. This means that any gasses produced and any solvents used during the production process are captured and converted back into a usable form. Overall, modal is not inherently environmentally friendly but it can be a lower impact fiber option under certain conditions.
Unlike Lenzing’s Modal, elastane does not have as good a track record. Elastane manufacturing starts with petroleum-based raw materials, involves a significant use of chemicals, the product is non-biodegradable, and the product is known for microplastic pollution. After the extraction and refining of petroleum, the petroleum is broken down into monomers, those monomers undergo further chemical treatment to form long-chain molecules, those long-chain molecules are turned into polyurethane, and lastly the elastane fiber is formed. Each step of this process involves emissions such as CO2, CO, VOCs, and isocyanate vapors. Each step also has solid by-products such as water with heavy metals, sludge, and spent catalysts. Victoria Secret does ensure that their suppliers comply with a supplier code of conduct and that they follow the requirements of the European Chemicals Agency. Even if Victoria’s Secret’s supplier is following best chemical practices, elastane is still a fabric that is not biodegradable and creates microplastics.
The cotton refining process can vary between manufacturers. Since Victoria’s Secret does not provide specifics about their cotton supplier, this will be a generalization. Cotton refinement starts with ginning or mechanical cleaning. A machine separates the cotton fibers from the rest of the plant. This produces CO2 emissions from the machinery and wastes the excess parts of the cotton. Then the cotton fibers go through scouring, purification, and fiber finishing. These processes involve a lot of chemicals that lead to wastewater containing residual chemicals like sodium hydroxide, and emissions such as CO2 and VOCs. The average cotton refinement process can be very environmentally taxing especially if the chemicals are not disposed of properly.
Lastly, there’s the process of creating recycled polyester. Creating recycled polyester involves collecting and sorting plastic waste, washing and cleaning said waste, converting the plastic into a homogenous liquid, polymerization and spinning, then finishing with texturing. These processes each have waste such non-recyclable plastics, CO2 emissions, contaminated wastewater, VOCs, microplastics, and other residual chemicals. Though many people assume that recycled polyester is automatically more eco friendly, the manufacturing process is not perfect and has its own environmental drawbacks.
Just like in the first section, it is clear that even though Victoria’s Secret tries to use better materials and hold their suppliers to standards, they have a long way to go before that can be considered sustainable.
Distribution and Transportation:
Victoria’s Secret outsources their manufacturing processes to locations all around the world. That means that at every step in the creation of their products there are notable transportation costs, and therefore notable emissions. Another aspect of transportation and distribution is packaging. Victoria Secret says that they aim to have 75% of packaging be designed with at least one eco-design principle such as weight optimization, mono-material, fully recyclable, reusable and free of virgin content. This simply isn’t enough of a change. The Supply Chain Solutions Center says that, “9.2 billion tons of plastic has been produced, of which only 9 percent has been recycled properly.” So even if Victoria’s Secret achieved their packaging goals by 2030, I don’t believe it’s enough of an effort to stop considering Victoria’s Secret packaging as part of the problem.
Use/re-use/maintenance:
The use/re-use/maintenance of the Victoria's Secret’s Bombshell T-shirt bra would at very least involve washing and drying for every use or so. Washing and drying clothes involves creating contaminated wastewater, high energy usage, emissions from boilers and dryers, and the waste of the packaging involved in the washing drying process. Potentially, a customer could repair their Victoria Secret bra using fabric and thread. The method that a customer uses to wash and dry and maintain their clothes vary in their environmental impact.
Recycle:
Recycling clothes can be very difficult depending on the material used. Victoria’s Secret is working on a take back program that would allow you to return products so their materials can be reused. Currently there are not many options for recycling bras. Since the bra is made of a mixture of fabrics, many recycling places won’t be able to process it, and many thrifting or clothing resale locations won’t take bras. If you are able to find a way to recycle your bras, that is always better than the bra going to landfill.
Waste Management:
Waste management for textiles is a big problem. As stated by earth.org, “The US ships a significant quantity of clothes overseas for end-of-life processing. The foreign dumping sites leak toxins into local water supplies and pollute the surface.” The dumping of textile waste also leads to microplastics leaching into the environment. There are even companies that incinerate textile waste, leading to CO2 and other pollutants. Companies like Victoria’s Secret can improve their end of life waste by creating biodegradable materials and offering take back programs.
Conclusions:
Even though Victoria’s Secret is trying to commit to a more sustainable future they have a lot of work left to do and promises yet to be made. They want to hold suppliers to environmental standards but don’t provide enough information about which suppliers are responsible for different products. They want to start environmental programs such as take back programs and more eco-friendly packaging, but what they are striving to do is not enough compared to the rate and amount of pollution they produce. There was waste and emissions at every step of the Bombshell T-shirt bra’s lifecycle. I tried to cover as many bases as I could think of but I probably even missed a few avenues in which the product produced waste. I think the only way that Victoria’s Secret could be a sustainable company is if they stopped caring about profit over people and plants. They need to downsize their operations, use biodegradable materials that aren’t synthetic, cut back on outsourcing to limit transportation, use less chemically intensive processes, and so much more. I appreciate that they are trying to improve their environmental impact, but as one of the top companies in underwear they need to do better.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Source 1:
https://www.victoriassecretandco.com/corporate-responsibility/product-information/policies/fibers-and-materials (supposed raw materials list from their website) (2024)
“Raw Materials.” Victoria’s Secret & Co., www.victoriassecretandco.com/corporate-responsibility/product-information/policies/fibers-and-materials. Accessed 3 May 2024.
Source 2:
https://www.victoriassecretandco.com/corporate-responsibility/environment/water/supply-chain (Chemicals uses from their website) (2024)
“Chemicals Management.” Victoria’s Secret & Co., www.victoriassecretandco.com/corporate-responsibility/environment/water/supply-chain. Accessed 3 May 2024.
Source 3:
https://www.victoriassecret.com/us/vs/bras-catalog/5000008119 (Product description from website) (2024)
“THE T-SHIRT Bombshell Push-Up Bra.” Victoria’s Secret, www.victoriassecret.com/us/vs/bras-catalog/5000008119.
Source 4:
https://victoriassecret.gcs-web.com/corporate-responsibility/supply-chain/social-compliance-program/traceability-and-risk-assessment (Brief overview of supply chain) (2024)
“Traceability & Risk Assessment.” Victoria’s Secret & Co., victoriassecret.gcs-web.com/corporate-responsibility/supply-chain/social-compliance-program/traceability-and-risk-assessment. Accessed 3 May 2024.
Source 5:
https://youtu.be/uV2pbwR7gI0 “Lenzing Modal Textile.” YouTube, 28 Feb. 2016, youtu.be/uV2pbwR7gI0.
Source 6:
https://www.lenzing.com/sustainability/production/resources/chemicals#:~:text=Thanks%20to%20Lenzing's%20closed%20loop,NMMO%20to%20dissolve%20the%20pulp. “Lenzing Group.” Lenzing, www.lenzing.com/sustainability/production/resources/chemicals#:~:text=Thanks%20to%20Lenzing’s%20closed%20loop,NMMO%20to%20dissolve%20the%20pulp. Accessed 4 June 2024.
Source 7:
https://goodonyou.eco/material-guide-ethical-modal/“What Is Modal? Material Guide, Ethics and Sustainability.” Good On You, 20 Dec. 2023, goodonyou.eco/material-guide-ethical-modal/.
Source 8:
https://sustainablereview.com/elastane-vs-spandex-suitable-for-a-sustainable-stretch/SeventhQueen, and Raf Chomsky. “Elastane vs Spandex: Unraveling the Stretchy Truth.” Sustainable Review, 29 Jan. 2024, sustainablereview.com/elastane-vs-spandex-suitable-for-a-sustainable-stretch/.
Source 9:
https://www.worldwildlife.org/industries/cotton Cotton | Industries | WWF, www.worldwildlife.org/industries/cotton. Accessed 4 June 2024.
Source 10:
https://barnhardtcotton.net/technology/cotton-processing/#:~:text=The%20fiber%20is%20fed%20into,stalk%2C%20stem%2C%20and%20leaves%2C“Raw Cotton Processing: How Is Cotton Processed: Barnhardt Cotton.” Barnhardt Purified Cotton, 31 July 2019, barnhardtcotton.net/technology/cotton-processing/#:~:text=The%20fiber%20is%20fed%20into,stalk%2C%20stem%2C%20and%20leaves%2C.
Source 11:
“Packaging.” Victoria’s Secret & Co., www.victoriassecretandco.com/corporate-responsibility/environment/waste-reduction--recycling#:~:text=For%20essential%20packaging%2C%20we%20focus,and%20free%20of%20virgin%20content. Accessed 4 June 2024.
Source 12:
“Packaging Waste 101: The Problem.” Supply Chain Solutions Center, supplychain.edf.org/resources/sustainability-101-packaging-waste-the-problem/#:~:text=Due%20to%20poor%20waste%20management,poses%20risks%20to%20human%20health. Accessed 4 June 2024.
Source 13:
https://earth.org/how-can-the-fashion-industry-reduce-textile-waste/ Marsh, Jane. “How Can the Fashion Industry Reduce Textile Waste?” Earth.Org, Earth.Org, 21 Dec. 2021, earth.org/how-can-the-fashion-industry-reduce-textile-waste/.