Design Life-Cycle
assess.design.(don't)consume
Jian Pei Liang
Des 40A
Life-Cycle Research Paper
5/8/2024
Mountain Dwelling, Sustainability of Materials
Architects create many masterpieces, shaping the future with their designs and creating everlasting monuments. As Norman Foster, a renowned English architect, said, “As an architect, you design for the present, with an awareness of the past for a future which is essentially unknown." The future is an enigma, ever-changing and shaping our lives, and architecture is a way to sustain our path forward. This philosophy is embodied in the Danish architecture of Mountain Dwelling, built in 2008. The building’s unique design, resembling a terraced mountain, provides housing and community spaces while prioritizing sustainability. With the global population not showing signs of slowing down and thus housing demands, buildings are responsible for 39% of the worldwide greenhouse gas emissions. To address this, materials like aluminum alloy and oak wood offer sustainable solutions for urban living spaces. Their life cycle, from acquisition, processing, and transportation to their usage, recycling, and waste management, significantly decreases greenhouse gas emissions compared with other building materials. These materials promote a way to build structures that are more sustainable and environmentally friendly for generations to come.
“Sustainability, ensuring the future of life on Earth, is an infinite game, the endless expression of generosity on behalf of all”-Paul Hawken. Ever since long ago, humans have taken advantage of our Earth. As technology improves, this thirst for materials has never ceased. In the future, it wouldn’t be seized; however, it is possible to become more sustainable in the long run. Both aluminum and oak wood have different but identical approaches to this goal. For aluminum, the process begins with mining bauxite, primarily found in Australia, Brazil, and Guinea. The mining process is usually an open-air mining operation, destroying the local ecosystem. However, most aluminum used is recycled, which, in the long run, creates a smaller carbon footprint overall than most other building materials. After bauxite is mined, it is then refined into alumina or aluminum oxide through different methods, primarily the Bayer process, which involves dissolving the bauxite in sodium hydroxide at high temperatures. This results in alumina or aluminum oxide, which then goes through the Hall-Héroult process to extract pure aluminum from the alumina. These processes took years to develop and were industrialized from 1889 to the modern day. This whole process requires an immense amount of energy, creating a huge carbon footprint. However, advancements in renewable energy and recycling technologies are making aluminum production more sustainable as it becomes more efficient to create and recycle aluminum. In contrast, oak wood is much more sustainable through sustainable forestry practices. Oak wood primarily grows in colder climates, such as North America and Europe. Sustainable forestry has several methods to maintain the ecological balance of the forest. It involves forest management, saplings, forest health, special sites, and species interconnectivity. Once the tree is harvested, oak logs are processed, which includes sawing, drying, and finishing to prepare them for use in construction. It requires low energy to produce oak products, and the ability to sequence carbon makes oak incredibly sustainable. Both aluminum and oak wood demonstrate that, with mindful sourcing and processing, they can significantly contribute to sustainable construction practices. With aluminum alloys offering durability and recyclability, oak wood with renewability and carbon-efficient options shows how diverse materials can meet the demands of modern architecture while minimizing environmental impact.
"Industrialization has made the modern world possible, but it has also imposed a significant burden on the environment. Our challenge today is to mitigate this impact through sustainable practices"-Klaus Schwab. After the raw materials are mined, they are sent to processing factories to be altered for construction applications. For aluminum, after they’ve been refined, they are then shipped to factories to be made into alloys. Paradoxically, aluminum by itself is weak and prone to corrosion. However, when combined with other minerals to form alloys, they become one of the strongest and lightest building materials. This isn't without its flaws; aluminum alloys lose their structural integrity at high temperatures. Aluminum alloys are processed by two separate methods: cast or wrought. Primarily, the aluminum alloys made for buildings are made by the wrought method, where the alloys are stronger. Using the wrought method, a type of smithing method, aluminum alloy can be processed into a variety of shapes and forms through rolling, extrusion, and other techniques. These processes allow the aluminum alloy to be shaped into components such as beams, panels, and frames, essential for modern construction. Smelting aluminum is energy-intensive and produces several greenhouse gases. However, improvements in renewable energy use and recycling are reducing its overall environmental impact. In contrast, oak wood undergoes a more traditional processing sequence. Once harvested, oak logs are transported to sawmills, where they are cut into boards and planks. The rough cuts of wood are then dried, either in kilns or through air-drying methods, to reduce moisture content and prevent warping. After drying, the wood is treated to enhance durability and resistance to pests. The final stage involves milling and shaping the wood into specific sizes and profiles suitable for construction purposes, such as flooring, beams, and furniture. Oak wood processing, though less energy-intensive than aluminum smelting, still requires careful management to be sustainable. However, it still creates dangerous chemicals that are unsuitable for the environment during the treatment process. The benefits of using oak wood are that it is lightweight, strong, and fire-resistant. Paradoxically, oak wood is fire-resistant; however, this is due to the density of oak wood. When burned, the outside shell of oak wood would turn into charcoal and insulate the core, ensuring the strength of oak wood. Along with the properties of wood being a good insulator, oak wood slows down the spread of fire. Both aluminum and oak wood processing demonstrate the diverse methods required to transform raw materials into construction-ready components. While aluminum processing focuses on energy-intensive smelting and shaping, the industry is increasingly adopting greener technologies. Oak wood processing, with its emphasis on cutting, drying, and treating, benefits from sustainable forestry practices that ensure a continuous and eco-friendly supply of this renewable resource. Together, these processing techniques show the importance of innovation and sustainable practices in minimizing the environmental impact of construction materials.
“Globalization is the process by which markets integrate worldwide"-Michael Spence. Transportation of goods has always been the interconnect between nations. It’s also one of the biggest sources of carbon emissions worldwide. For both aluminum alloy and oak wood, their journey from the source to the processing factories involves several changes in transportation and globalization. For aluminum alloy, the process starts with transporting bauxite to refining facilities using trains or boats. Once refined into alumina, they are packed and shipped to aluminum smelting plants. These plants are usually located in faraway countries, primarily China. The finished products are then shipped to construction sites or other factories for further processing. The whole process leads to huge carbon emissions. It is still by far less than steel transportation, as steel has more mass than aluminum. Oak wood, instead, has a more straightforward transportation process. Oak logs are typically transported from forests to nearby local sawmills using trains or trucks. From the sawmills, the oak lumber is processed and shipped to various locations for construction and manufacturing. The transportation of oak wood generally involves shorter distances compared to aluminum alloy, reducing its overall carbon footprint. In the case of Mountain Dwelling, their oak is sourced locally in Denmark. Both aluminum and oak wood highlight the importance of efficient transportation logistics in sustainable construction. In addition, the transportation of materials has also increased global interconnections. Together, these materials contribute to more sustainable construction practices, aligning with global efforts to reduce the carbon footprint of the building industry.
The design of the Mountain Dwelling building shows how using materials such as aluminum alloy and oak wood can create an aesthetically pleasing design. Aluminum alloys are used as plating for the facade of the building, and aluminum composite materials are used for the walls of the building. Aluminum alloy plating is used for the outside decoration due to its lightweight, clean, and sleek appearance and its corrosion resistance for low maintenance. The outside plating is perforated for light to shine through, for breathability, and to create the image of a mountain. The walls of the building are made of aluminum composite materials by ReynobondⓇ; they're used for their lightweight, strength, and fire resistance. Inside the building, aluminum alloy is also used as window frames, door handles, and light fixtures. In contrast, oak wood is primarily used in the interior spaces of the building for comfort. Oak planks are extensively used for flooring, creating a comfortable and inviting atmosphere for its residents. Its durability and texture make it a practical choice for public areas. The furniture within the Mountain Dwelling is also crafted from oak wood, offering further warmth and a natural complement to the overall design. Both the use of aluminum alloy and oak wood in The Mountain Dwelling are examples of thoughtful approaches to material selection, combining sustainability and architectural beauty. It also puts the inhabitants in mind, with its wooden furniture and flooring creating a warm atmosphere contrasting with its rigid exterior.
“The secret to a rich life is to have more beginnings than endings"-David Weinbaum. Recycling is the process of collecting, sorting, and converting raw materials into raw materials for another use. Recycling and reusing materials are necessary strategies for sustainability and reducing environmental impact. Both aluminum and oak wood offer different recycling and reusing potential. The recycling process for aluminum is well established and highly efficient. The global aluminum recycling rate is at 75%, which means that ~75% of the aluminum used in the world is recycled, and the numbers are increasing. Aluminum alloy recycling involves melting down scraps of aluminum alloy to remove impurities, a process that requires only about 5% of the energy used to produce new aluminum from bauxite ore. Recycled aluminum retains its quality and properties, allowing it to be used repeatedly without degradation. It’s the reason that more than 65% of aluminum was recycled in the US in 2011. This endless recyclability of aluminum not only conserves its resources but also significantly reduces greenhouse gas emissions associated with aluminum production. These properties are the reasons why aluminum is also called “green metal." Aluminum alloys are also reusable and typically nonreactive or innate. Similarly, oak wood is recyclable and reusable, contributing to waste reduction and resource efficiency. Untreated wood scraps can be recycled into products like paper, particleboard, or mulch, efficiently using the resources. Treated oak wood is usually not recyclable due to the added chemicals; however, it can be repurposed for other projects, such as furniture making or interior design elements, for its aesthetic and functional value. Together, the recycling of aluminum and the repurposing of oak wood show the different ways that buildings can be sustainable, even at the end of their lifespan. Aluminum's efficient recycling process drastically reduces energy use and emissions, while oak wood's potential for repurposing extends its usability and reduces waste. These practices showcase the importance of using recyclable and reusable materials to promote environmental stewardship for sustainable development.
“There is no such thing as ‘away’. When we throw anything away, it must go somewhere"-Annie Leonard. Waste management is another necessary step toward sustainability. Both aluminum alloy and oak wood produce harsh byproducts and waste during processing, endangering the environment. For aluminum, it all begins with the mining process; most mining processes for aluminum are open-pit mining. This type of mining process increases the environmental exposure to toxic minerals such as lead and arsenic. These minerals can easily infiltrate into the water system, are carcinogenic, and are linked to stillbirth. After the minerals are mined, it's time for refinements. The refinement of bauxite involves highly alkaline chemicals, producing red mud and another strong alkaline chemical, sodium aluminate. For every ton of alumina, 1.5 tons of bauxite alkaline waste are created. Afterward, during the Hall-Héroult process, more greenhouse gases are created and released into the atmosphere. By far the most energy used during the aluminum alloy creation is during the Hall-Héroult process; as much as 70% of total energy is used in making aluminum. Finally comes the smelting process, which takes only about 5% of the total energy. Techniques to neutralize waste, such as red mud and toxic gases, before disposal help mitigate their environmental effects. Additionally, there are ways to reuse these byproducts, such as using red mud in construction materials or soil remediation. At the end of the life cycle, many aluminum alloys end up in landfills. However, due to the recyclability of aluminum, only 1.8% of landfills in the US were aluminum in 2018. In the case of oak wood, waste management involves handling wood waste generated during the processing stages. This includes sawdust, wood chips, and offcuts; they are sent to be recycled. Composting is another viable option, turning wood waste into nutrient-rich soil. During the treatment process of oak wood, chemicals are used to prevent the wood from rotting. However, these chemicals are not as impactful as the chemicals produced by aluminum production. Both aluminum and oak wood illustrate the importance of comprehensive waste management strategies for sustainability. By properly managing and treating byproducts from aluminum alloy creations and recycling or repurposing wood waste, the construction industry can significantly reduce its environmental impact. However, these practices also highlight the need for ongoing innovation and commitment to sustainability in all stages of material lifecycle management.
In conclusion, the life cycles of aluminum alloys and oak woods are examples of approaches to sustainable construction, from material sourcing and processing to waste management and recycling. Aluminum alloy, with its properties of being lightweight, strong, and corrosion-resistant, makes it the ideal candidate for building materials. Its endless recyclability and reusability gave it the title of “green metal." The benefits far outweigh the waste produced by creating aluminum alloys. Oak wood also has several identical properties to aluminum alloy, both being lightweight and strong with strong reusability. Making oak wood the perfect material for interior decorations. Oak wood also helps sequester carbon, especially with sustainable forestry. Mountain Dwelling purposely uses these materials to lower its carbon footprints and lead the world with sustainable architecture. By integrating sustainable materials and sustainable construction practices, the construction industry can contribute to a brighter future. The future is still an enigma for humankind, with different political clashes, increasing consumption rates, and ever-increasing climate crises. The need to sustainably use our limited resources is becoming increasingly important for the future. As the saying goes, “We do not inherit the earth from our ancestors; we borrow it from our children.”
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Cruz Martinez
Alejandra Ruiz
DES 040A
Spring Quarter 2024
Mountain Dwellings: Energy
Copenhagen, Denmark, isn’t where you’d expect to find a mountain, but Bjarke Ingels built one. Mountain Dwellings, by Bjarke Ingels Group Inc., is an exemplary feat that serves as a crossroad for beauty and sustainable building practices. It serves as a reminder that housing can embody beauty and utility in the modern era. Resembling a mountainside, the apartments are sloped upward and built atop the parking garage, which is invisible from the exterior. Ingles wanted to create the feeling of being in the quiet suburbs while still being close to the city, and he perfectly captures this feeling. Like any construction project, there is a lot of energy that goes into all aspects of creating whatever it is that is being built. To onlookers, it might seem that the only energy used is electricity for tools and truck fuel, but there is much more behind the scenes. From the materials being harvested and manufactured to transporting and discarding them, much of the energy is used before they break ground on the project. This essay will attempt to focus on the energy lifecycle of Mountain Dwellings, including the raw material production and energy performance of the materials in the building.
In Mountain Dwellings, Bjarke Ingels Group used many materials in its construction. Bjarke wanted to create a sustainable structure without compromising its beauty. Of the many materials they used, we’ve elected to focus on Aluminum and Oakwood(More About: Mountain Dwellings). The North, East, and West facing facades are clad in Aluminum panels, whether they be perforated or solid. These panels serve many purposes, namely aesthetics in the case of the perforated type, creating an image of Mount Everest from afar. The flooring of the apartments in Mountain Dwellings is made of beautiful Oakwood, which is abundant in Denmark. These materials are executed perfectly to embody utility and eco-friendliness in unison.
First, the Raw Materials stage of these materials starts in very different places. Aluminum comes from bauxite mines, of which China and Australia have the most. Bauxite is a type of sedimentary rock high in aluminum content that is mostly found near the surface of the Earth’s crust (Alumina Refining 101) . The first harvesting stage is extracting the raw bauxite from the Earth using various mining tools(McMinn). The primary method of extracting bauxite from the Earth is via explosives and drills. Dynamite, used in all types of mines, mainly produces the toxic gases Carbon Monoxide (CO) and Nitrogen Oxide (NOx). These gases mostly pose a threat to the workers inside the mine, as inhaling these gases just a few times can be detrimental to their health(Mainiero). The drills used in mines can be powered by a few different types of fuel: gasoline, diesel, electricity, hydraulic, or air (pneumatic). Of these, the most common is hydraulic, with the average power output being anywhere between 5-30kW. Though these use an electric motor to power the fluid pump needed to power the hydraulic system, it is much more powerful than an electric drill(Drills, Explosives Loaders, and Rippers). After the bauxite ore is extracted from the mines, it is crushed, and Alumina is extracted from the bauxite ore using acid and high temperatures. After extracting the Alumina from the bauxite, it is dissolved in molten Cryolite, a mineral almost exclusively used for aluminum production. After dissolving the Alumina, the solution is electrolyzed with high amounts of electricity, heated to 1000 degrees centigrade, and pure Aluminum is formed. In the extraction and early production stages of Aluminum panels, the embodied energy comes entirely from the tools used to extract the bauxite and then turn it into Aluminum. From the drills and explosives used to the tools used to heat up the Alumina-Cryolite solution, it takes a lot of energy to create raw Aluminum.
The raw materials for Oak wood begin above ground, within the forest canopies. Oak is a very common tree, mainly found across North America and Europe. It is ideal for furniture, paneling, decking, and flooring in the case of Mountain Dwellings (Oak (Types of Wood)). The floors inside all of the apartment units are made of Oak hardwood. The harvesting of Oak wood begins in the forest, with tree felling (cutting down trees). After foresters carefully select trees to be felled, the gasoline-powered chainsaw is their primary tool of choice to get the job done. Most gasoline chainsaws have a power output of about 3 horsepower or around 2,200 watts, proving very efficient for tree felling (Brain). After the trees have been felled, chainsaws are used once again to remove all of the limbs of the trunk, preparing it for the lumber mill, where it will be turned into wood planks. The process of felling trees doesn’t just use energy to cut the trees; there is more to it. In order to get to the desired trees in the forest, they must first build a road to get trucks to the felling site. To do this, foresters use bulldozers and chainsaws to cut and plow through the forest to reach the felling site, creating a temporary road. This uses tremendous amounts of energy in the fuel burned by both machines. Bulldozers range in size and power output, but they can range anywhere from 195 horsepower to over 900, which is over 600 times that of the chainsaw(CAT Rental Store). Like Aluminum, Oakwood has a tremendous amount of energy just going into extracting it from its natural spawn point.
There are two types of aluminum panels used in Mountain Dwellings, both of which are used on the facades of the building. The first is the perforated aluminum, which is used mainly for ornamental purposes. This appears on the lower portion of the facade and creates an image of Mount Everest. The holes in the perforated panels had to be carefully placed with varying sizes and spacing to act almost like pixels in the overall image. The first step in creating these perforated panels is actually the process's only step. They begin with aluminum sheet metal, which is very flexible and malleable, which is then fed through one of 3 hole-punching machines(Perforated Aluminum:What is it? How does it work?). The first and most popular is the punching press, which runs on hydraulic power (electric motors). It passes the sheets under a large press with little sharp tools called “rams.” The rams are pressed into the sheet metal, leaving the desired hole size. The second type of perforating machine is the rotary pin, which works similarly to the punchin press, though with a few differences. This still passes the sheet metal under the machine and punches the holes with rams, but instead of punching them row by row, it rolls like a rolling pin. In the latter method, it is sometimes necessary to heat the rams to allow them to punch through more easily, but that isn’t too common. The rotary pin is also powered via hydraulics, which is powered by electricity and produces tremendous power output. The final option for aluminum perforation machines is laser-cuting. This is the most recently developed method, which utilizes highly focused laser beams to burn the holes through the metal. However, it is not very popular because it is very time-intensive, costly, and takes a lot of energy to power the lasers, so it is very inefficient. Despite this, the perforated Aluminum used by Mountain Dwellings was actually fabricated with the laser method, most likely because of the varying size of the holes needed to achieve the Mount Everest image(MOUNTAIN DWELLINGS IAAC blog).
The second type of aluminum panel used is on the facade of the apartments, which is made of Reynobon aluminum plates. Reynobond, an American architectural material company, produces an aluminum panel that uses a fabrication technique that uses 2 pieces of aluminum to sandwich a core, creating one plate(Raynobond Aluminum Composite Materials 160FR). The core is made of polyethylene, a type of non-toxic plastic that is mixed with mineral flame retardant, making the aluminum panel flame retardant as a whole. The core is then sandwiched between two sheets of aluminum, which are boned to the core using high amounts of heat. The panels are then painted with a modified silicone polyester resin called Duragloss 5000 to give them their finish and color(Aluminum Composite Material). Duragloss 5000 is created by mixing silicone into an existing polymer resin to improve the performance and longevity of the resin. This mixing process is done mechanically in industrial mixers, usually powered by electricity.
Production of raw lumber into hardwood flooring begins immediately after cutting the trees. The logs are cut into planks, which are then dried out to increase the rigidity of the wood, making it suitable for all kinds of uses. Specifically for flooring, the planks are rated based on their moisture content and might even use a kiln, fueled by more wood, to help dry out the wood planks(Master). After this, the planks are cut into more specific shapes needed for the hardwood flooring installation puzzle. The flooring can be cut into different types of designs, requiring various amounts of sawing (and thus more power), but the most common is the Plain saw method, which cuts the wood into large planks with little to no wasted lumber. After this, the wood is sanded down so it is better suited to take varnishing and oils, requiring more energy from the electric sanders. Some manufacturers will elect to oil or varnish their wood immediately after sanding and sell it as such, though others will let the customer choose the finish they prefer. Most of the energy in this stage comes from electric tools used to prepare the wood for distribution.
The distribution of aluminum and oak wood requires very high amounts of energy to transport to the manufacturing plant from the harvesting site and from the manufacturer to the retailer. Trucks are utilized to transport both materials quickly to where they are needed. Semi-trucks mostly use diesel as a fuel source, which is similar to gasoline, except diesel doesn’t require a spark to ignite it. Although diesel is renowned for being a dirty fuel source, it actually has a much higher energy density than gasoline and is more fuel efficient. This means that semi-trucks are more efficient in moving these large loads than their gasoline counterparts. These diesel-powered vehicles also have a tremendous energy output of up to 600 horsepower, equivalent to over 400 kW(International Used Truck Centers).
In the construction of Mountain Dwellings, all of the energy now lies in the tools used by the workers to put the pieces together. The Raynobond Aluminum panels are cleverly designed to fasten to each other like puzzle pieces, eliminating the need for many rivets or fasteners. Fasteners are, however, used to connect the unified panels to the metal framing of the building. The tools needed to install those fasteners are likely powered by electricity, like most conventional hand tools. The perforated panels are installed similarly, with fasteners attached to the metal exterior framing, likely using electric-powered tools(MOUNTAIN DWELLING IAAC Blog). The oak hardwood flooring could be installed using a few different methods(Haque). For hardwood like oak, it is common to use staples or nails to fasten the flooring to the wooden subfloor. This could be achieved with a hammer or a mechanical staple gun, but contemporary construction practices call for electric power tools like nail and staple guns. Floors can also be installed with glue spread on the subfloor, and the flooring is placed plank-by-plank on top. The latter method requires little to no energy, as the tools are all mechanical.
Regarding the building being used after construction, the materials serve a purpose besides aesthetics. The perforated aluminum provides air circulation to the parking garage levels that are exposed to the outdoors on the two ends(MOUNTAIN DWELLINGS IAAC Blog). The perforations in the metal also serve to let sunlight into the parking garage, eliminating energy costs for most of the day that would go towards lighting. The panels are also coated in a corrosion-resistant oil that extends their life greatly in rainy Copenhagen, requiring them never to be replaced, at least not in this lifetime. The Reynobond aluminum panels, with their thermoplastic core, serve as insulation for the apartments. In addition to the insulation, the thermoplastic’s main function is to protect the building against fires. This not only means it helps cool the building from the sun, but in the event of a fire, the flames would be contained within the building, and it also lessens the likelihood of an adjacent fire setting Mountain Dwellings ablaze. In the case of oak flooring, hardwood is known to be a very good insulator, meaning it keeps your home the temperature you want it to be. This means lower energy costs in the coldest and warmest months.
Recycled aluminum can save as much as 95% of the energy it takes to create new aluminum from bauxite(Sustainability-Recycling). Because of this, over 75% of the aluminum ever produced is still in use today. This means every year in the U.S., over 90 million barrels of oil are saved due to aluminum recycling efforts. Although the aluminum in Mountain Dwellings might not be recycled anytime soon, it eases the mind, knowing that it is a material that can be recycled endlessly. Oak wood flooring isn’t always the best material for recycling. Although it may be recycled in some cases, it mostly ends up in landfills.
Throughout the research of this paper, there were many successes, such as finding the specific manufacturer of the Aluminum panels and even the composition of the resin finish they had. But, there were also many failures in finding information. First, we couldn’t find where the oak was harvested in the case of Mountain Dwellings. Oak is abundant in Denmark, so we can assume it was harvested there, but we can’t be sure. Coupled with this, we couldn’t find the flooring manufacturer either, so we can’t even place where the company might have harvested their wood. Similarly, we were able to find the manufacturer of the perforated aluminum panels, Netto, but found no information on the company. Even when you google the name, Netto, nothing comes up that shows any indication of being the company’s website. We cannot find any information on what kinds of trucks or other vehicles and tools were used for construction, transportation, and distribution. To circumvent this, we relied on what common practices are in these industries and made an educated estimate on what tools and vehicles might be used in these processes.
Mountain Dwellings is a pinnacle of the delicate blend of architectural mastery and sustainable construction practices. The firm that designed it, Bjarke Ingles Group Inc., headed by Bjarke Ingels, has proved that beauty and utility can coexist without encroaching on each other. The energy that went into creating this piece of work was immense, as most construction projects are. However, through the use of sustainably minded materials, energy use can be mitigated with little to no reason not to use said materials. As someone who used to only think about what energy was used in the construction stage of a building, this project has opened my eyes to what the embodied energy of a project is, that is, the energy used to harvest the materials, manufacture them, and transport them to the construction site. Thanks to Bjarke Ingels’ sustainability-oriented design practices, Mountain Dwellings will be a case study for architects to look to for decades to come when searching for something that has sustainability at the forefront.
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Hannan Pathan
Jian Pei Liang, Cruz Martinez
DES 40A
Professor Cogdell
Mountain Dwellings, Bjarke Ingels : Waste Management
“Yes is More” is the philosophy that Bjarke Ingels employs within his architecture and his firm, Bjarke Ingels Group, or BIG (Estika). This concept was made largely known through his groundbreaking work exemplifying the idea of hedonistic sustainability, defying the Puritan idea that sustainability requires control and abstinence from the guilty pleasures of life (Estika). Bjarke Ingels creates, in Mountain Dwellings, a sustainable and ingenious building combining both a parking structure that serves as a mountain slope supporting 10- storeys of residential units (Saieh). Mountain Dwellings features use of aluminum in various forms, terrace gardens, untreated hardwood and oak wood in order to create a large juxtaposition between a ‘contemporary urban side’ and a ‘superorganic suburban side’. Within this essay, an exploration on the life cycle assessment, specifically the waste emissions and recycling of these materials by Bjarke Ingels and the BIG company, will be examined in order to reach a conclusion regarding the building’s sustainability and future as a hallmark for hedonistic sustainability.
Mountain Dwellings uses aluminum within its perforated panel form and composite panel forms, in order to recycle and reduce global carbon emissions. Within the year that Mountain Dwellings was built, revenue from aluminum production reached 367 million dollars compared to succeeding years that remained under 200 million dollars (“Forecast: Aluminum Production…). Despite this large revenue, the use of aluminum may have been a smart decision due to its highly recyclable nature. While information regarding the specific source of Mountain Dwellings’ source, Netto Perforering, presented difficult to find waste emissions reports or life cycle assessments for, more general information regarding other aluminum companies with similar product lists provided were able to be considered for the purposes of this paper. Regarding the Ullrich Aluminum company, their listed benefits regarding the use of aluminum are the creation of lighter weight materials which may aid in transportation of materials as well as prove itself strong and durable due to its resistance to corrosion. While transportation is not applicable here, as Netto Perforering is also based in Denmark and Ingels has stated that many of the components of the building were built off-site, making it impossible to find the emissions of transportation, the lightweight aluminum adds to the urban sustainability idea. Furthermore, for reuse, buildings present as sources as the aluminum used in a skyscraper, for example, can be harvested using only 5% of the original energy used (Wang). Perforated aluminum panels, which were used for the North and West facades of Mountain Dwellings upon which an image of the Himalayan mountains were cast, can also be reused for pieces of furniture as most public benches are made of the same material. Even if benches would not be made, the material can also be used for the creation of a skeleton for new furniture. These panels are created after stamping with a cool press and can generate waste in forms of rolls of tape, or from cutting of the holes (Mironovs) . However, these wastes, especially from aluminum, can be used again in construction and can be melted down as well. These panels can also be used as the raw material needed for other types of panels like composite sandwich panels and in cases of large amounts of perforated waste, they can also be grinded into powders or fed into disintegration mills (Mironovs). However, this form of recycling has a heightened amount of pollution. The tape form of waste can also be used as manufacturing for frames of furniture and other devices.
Aluminum was used in 2 other ways as composite panels for the purpose of the inside of the parking structure as well as the building’s facade, which used non-perforated panels (Liang). The waste emissions and outputs of this specific type of panel can be analyzed with a larger and more generalized approach first, regarding the lifecycle of aluminum from its beginning in mining from a similar company. Raw material extraction, of bauxite specifically, requires tons of rock to be moved and most mining operations are put onto developing countries for loose regulation, ultimately requiring large inputs of materials, energy and water with large outputs of contaminated water from washing, dust particles, bauxite residues and left-over from the processing of the mined ore, like ground rock, chemicals, organic matter etc (Dunlap). The water is often stored in containment ponds and the quality of the air surrounding the mine decreases heavily from smelting and can release high levels of carbon dioxide emissions into the atmosphere (Dunlap). The extraction of alumina from bauxite requires the use of the Bayer Chemical Process and will often produce waste of ‘red mud’, which is usually disposed of in the form of landfills (Dunlap). Electrolysis of alumina to produce aluminum requires aluminum fluoride, carbon anodes and large amounts of electricity which lead to waste of perfluorocarbon gasses, carbon dioxide and anodes as well as electricity (Dunlap). This step may release the most problematic form of waste as well as the most amount of global warming impact (65%) as perfluorocarbons have a higher global warming potential (GWP) per unit of emission than carbon dioxide, and smelting is an extremely large source of this (Dunlap). However, some may be recovered through methods of pollution control (Dunlap). Fabrication of the basic shapes of aluminum can produce waste or scrap but is usually recycled and can be used to make many daily goods like aluminum machinery (Dunlap). The recycling of these scraps also has benefits in energy, 5%, as well as greenhouse gas emissions as there is a significant decrease (11 Mt of CO2 → 0.96 Mt of CO2). Furthermore, modern methods of doing so with furnaces seem to allow most air emissions to be circulated largely inside the equipment and area in order to be combusted rather than let out. Lime and calcium carbonate are also both methods through which specific volatile organic compounds and gasses can be captured (Dunlap). Lastly, as one of the sources for composite panels is Reynobond, an American-based company, transportation and distribution wastes will have to be considered (Liang). While aluminum is lightweight and should require less fuel to deliver, packaging material within this stage and within the stage of construction and use are both high. There is also additional painting and the use of glaze, but its impact can be negligible or has already been included in waste emissions in earlier steps as the painting and glossing steps were not undertaken by Bjarke Ingels or the BIG company itself.
Mountain Dwellings counteracts its urban and grandeur appearance and provides balance with the use of untreated hardwood regarding the south-facing terraces as well as oakwood within its residential component. Mountain Dwellings uses locally sourced wood from a supplier and manufacturer known as Drewcom, which is a Polish wood supplier, and managed to cut down on waste emissions through this as well as advocate the most for sustainability (Liang). Unfortunately, information regarding the manufacturer was not available and most information within this topic will be general. Despite its locally sourced nature allowing Mountain Dwellings a cut down on transport emissions, the process of manufacturing wooden panels and hardwood releases an abundance of waste in terms of wood residues, chemicals, and an overuse of energy. Despite this, composite wood panels are a form of recycling of wood scraps as it uses wood fiber from other processes that originally would have filled landfills (Busch). These panels are also shown to be better at acting as carbon sinks, in the sense that they tend to absorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than is necessary for their production, manufacturing process and later, use (Busch). Although information about Drewcom was not readily available, information regarding Polish practices and life cycle assessments was able to be found. In the context of sustainability, the use of wooden panels seems to present a high list of benefits like its thermal conductivity, resistance to chemical substances, renewable, carbon balance and its easy ability to adhere to modification (Busch). The study compares the use of wood to the use of masonry on 4 residential buildings, which while most likely not the size of Mountain Dwellings, provides a comparison that can be scaled up to prove its advantage. The total of the buildings compared to each other provide almost a 100K kg difference, which is a good addition to the already lightweight material of aluminum (Pajchrowski et al.). Furthermore, the water, electric energy and waste amounts all showed a significant decrease to masonry as well, once again a 100,000 point difference (Pajchrowski et al.). However, the consequences of wooden panels also prove to be numerous such as ecosystem quality, the releasing of carcinogens, ozone layer depletion, emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrous oxide resulting in acid rain, the eutrophication of water through the receival of excess nutrients from fertilizers etc (Sathre). Despite this, regarding possible hardwood waste, most of it can be used as biomass boiler fuel which can substitute oil in some cases, or the material may also be recycled and used in other projects (Sathre). Other areas of waste will most likely be incinerated.
Finally, Mountain Dwellings also implements the use of green terraces or green roofs with seasonal plants that allow for lower energy consumption, large water runoff storage and circulation. The garden used specifically for Mountain Dwellings is a form of structure used mainly for buildings within space constraints and consists mainly of turf and ivy (Ingels). Green roofs, or terrace gardens, consist of many layers starting from the roof deck moving up into a protection board preventing water from entering the building (Singh). There also exists a drainage layer, which allows the storage of water and most likely the reuse and circulation of such, a fiber fleece, allowing water to drain through into the drainage layer, a growing medium (most likely a form of soil) and lastly, plants or the vegetative layer (Singh). The material separating the apartments and gardens, also, is a glass facade with sliding doors for the providing of light and fresh air (Saieh). Unlike, another alternative, white roofs, green roofs and gardens tend to have less reflective power regarding sunlight creating a larger cooling potential and the vegetative and growing layers allow extra cooling, insulation, and thermal mass to the roof which can lead to a lowered usage of air conditions on hot days and a reduction on electricity, air pollutants, and greenhouse gasses from power plants improving air quality (Julian Sproul et al.). Furthermore, they provide use in terms of stormwater management. Most green roofs have the ability to retain the 2 cm of rainwater and can reduce runoff. The life cycle assessment and possibility of recycling of the green roof’s materials however most point to incineration and landfills, except for the growth medium and vegetative layers that allow composting for agriculture (Taylana Piccinini Scolaro et al.). The growth medium layer of the green roof can be mostly organic matter, porous minerals, expanded clay and possible crushed materials like bricks and ash may also be used which provides a recycling aspect but also requires electricity in order to be crushed. The filter layer is usually made up of polyethylene or polypropylene which is lightweight but also requires high energy and has large emissions of nitrous oxide, sulfur oxide, trioxygen and more (Taylana Piccinini Scolaro et al.). The drainage layer is often made up of similar materials as the filter layer but may also have certain stone materials and this extraction will have similar waste creation as in the extraction process of aluminum. The water retention layer uses recycled textile fibers or possibly, rockwool which has a higher impact than textile (Taylana Piccinini Scolaro et al.). Despite the above waste emissions, green terraces and green roofs have a large ability to remove pollution that can counteract this and create more advantages (Singh). However, there are many ways to improve this ability as well such as the usage of fewer layers than is stated as being used in most standard green roofs or terraces to move to less extensive green roofs (Taylana Piccinini Scolaro et al.). The use of seasonal plants within the terrace gardens also creates a more residential quality to the building and provides a comforting and stark difference to the aluminum, urban parking structure below.
Mountain Dwellings, by Bjarke Ingels, is a largely ambitious project employing several strategies such as locally sourced wood, the use of easily recyclable materials, and the widespread use of green roofs and terrace gardens for runoff and temperature control. Furthermore, the concept of hedonistic sustainability proves itself once again in his work as he has created a hyper urban area supporting and elevating a very natural scene that he also describes as eventually looking like an ‘ancient Tibetan ruin’. Ingles proves that green architecture and eco-friendly buildings do not need to come at the cost of urbanism but can exist simultaneously and can meet extensive requirements in minimal spacing. Despite this, the amount of waste emissions for producing such a large building is high and even the more green aspects of the design seem to use non-sustainable material, leaning into the more hedonistic aspect of his philosophy. I was also unable to find specific human/labor conditions for most processes, but can conclude that, especially for aluminum extraction, the required input would be high with a larger disadvantageous output than necessary ranging from various lung diseases to compromised immune systems and nutrition. Despite the idea of hedonistic sustainability being a counteract to Puritan shame culture, there remains a large population and input of labor that is willfully ignored in the creation of this philosophy, cementing itself as only a philosophy unable to completely or truly ever transfer to real world circumstances or conditions.
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